The Impact of the Coronavirus (COVID-19) Pandemic on Master Graduates’ Employability

Abstract

The COVID-19 pandemic brought the global economy to a near standstill. The scale of the coronavirus and the associated losses have left many countries facing a humanitarian, social and economic crisis. The main objective of the research presented in this article was to determine to what extent the support provided within the activities of the Motokadra project (2018–2020) within the framework of the Operational Programme Knowledge Education Development, funded by the European Social Fund, enabled its participants to adapt to the labour market conditions during the COVID-19 pandemic. The project participants were full-time Master’s students within the faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Silesian University of Technology. They formed the experimental group. The authors examined changes in the employability of the experimental group in the pre-pandemic and post-pandemic periods. The students in the experimental group represented several fields of study, which also allowed the authors to analyse which discipline appeared to be more resilient to the COVID-19 pandemic crisis and whether the profile of the discipline affected employability. The employability of graduates in the automotive industry was particularly examined. The results of the analyses allow us to conclude that the labour market crisis linked to the COVID-19 pandemic negatively affected the experimental group’s employability level. Furthermore, it has been shown that the study of the automation and robotics discipline increases the chances of finding a job after graduation.

1. Introduction

The COVID-19 pandemic had a very negative impact on employment levels in many industries. According to the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) [1], COVID-19 caused the worst employment crisis since the Great Depression in the United States between 1929 and 1933. Fear of contagion and uncertainty about the future led to a sharp slowdown in economic activity, causing a deep and widespread shock to the labour market in many countries around the world. Many companies were forced to close or significantly reduce their operations to protect the health of their employees or due to the high levels of illness among their workforce. Where possible, employers have reorganised their operations to allow for teleworking. However, the nature, scope and intensity of the measures taken varied considerably between countries and sectors. The measures taken by both governments and individual companies have undoubtedly had a profound negative impact on the labour market situation. Furthermore, while teleworking could be a suitable option for employees with more seniority, new employees faced challenges due to the requirements for greater independence or knowledge of all procedures related to the performance of their duties.

Research on the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the labour market has been carried out by international and national institutions and organisations, such as WHO [2], ILO [3], Eurostat [4], BAEL [5,6], OECD [1], IZA [7] and others. In addition, many papers presented the primary results of studies on the impact of the coronavirus disease on the labour market. The OECD points to a real risk that this crisis will increase poverty and deepen social inequalities in many countries. It even suggests that richer countries need to act to prevent the employment crisis from becoming a social crisis [1]. The Bonn IZA research team presents, among other things, a comparative assessment of the measures taken both in individual countries and in the EU as a whole. The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the labour market has therefore become an important topic of research in various countries. The available information indicates that in Europe, the Mediterranean countries, including Italy, Greece and Spain, as well as the United Kingdom, have been the hardest hit by the coronavirus crisis. The proportion of jobs in industries that closed during the pandemic is the highest in these countries. At the other end of the scale are the Nordic and Central and Eastern European countries. Here, the proportion is below average [8]. This is due to a large extent to the specific nature of employment, with tourism, hotels, restaurants and the service sector being predominant in Southern Europe.

In Denmark, the unemployment rate was 3.6% in 2019 (before the COVID-19 outbreak) [9]. The unemployment rate in Denmark in the following pandemic year increased to 5.5% in May 2020 and decreased to 2.5% in February 2022 [10,11]. In Italy and Spain, unemployment was further exacerbated by the process of deindustrialisation due to post-crisis reforms at the end of the first decade of the 21st century. Furthermore, it has been shown that the youngest workers (15–29 years old) are particularly affected by deindustrialisation [8]. The German economy, one of the largest in Europe, was also severely impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic crisis. Significant symptoms of the labour market crisis include an increase in the number of applications per vacancy (increased competition among applicants) and a change in applicants’ preferences towards sectors less impacted by the pandemic [12]. Weaker employment dynamics and an increased risk of scarring effects have also been reported [12,13]. This is particularly true for young people starting their first job. There is a serious risk that young people will withdraw from the labour market for long periods due to failure and job insecurity, failing to build their careers and develop their skills. Another major European economy, the French economy, experienced a significant recession with the onset of the crisis. Redundancies and lay-offs mainly affected the least educated and least skilled, bypassing managers who were able to offer remote work. At the same time, social inequalities in employment, working conditions and gender equality became apparent (women were more likely to lose their jobs and their working conditions were worse than those of men) [14]. At the same time, there is a considerable risk that the collapse of the French labour market will have long-term structural effects on society. In [15], the author analyses the working conditions in critical situations based on representative data from the German BAuA Working Time Survey 2019. The empirical analyses show that the hazards arising from working conditions in critical positions increased during the pandemic and caused serious health risks. The conclusions presented in [16] on the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on economic and labour market performance can provide a theoretical basis for future research on the links between pandemics and macroeconomic indicators. Furthermore, they can also allow for the development of policy instruments in such situations. However, the study is limited by the advanced stage of development of most of the countries examined and by the short-term nature of the data availability.

The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the Polish labour market differs somewhat from the behaviour of other European markets. The first wave of infections in the spring did not cause a significant crisis, and the launch of government support programmes helped to keep unemployment growth in check. According to an analysis by Grant Thornton published in November 2020, only the second wave of infections caused noticeable changes. By observing the supply of job offers published by employers, it was found that during the first wave of the pandemic, the number of vacancies fell by 50% year-on-year, reaching 9.9% year-on-year in September. During the second wave of infection, the labour market contracted sharply, resulting in an average of only 7.8 job offers per 1000 inhabitants in Poland’s largest cities, compared with 11.8 in the corresponding period in the previous year. However, certain professions were more in demand, notably specialists in cybersecurity, e-commerce, financial analysis and medical professions [17]. Such preferences can easily be justified by the pandemic itself and the need to introduce remote working where possible. An important change has been the reduction in the number of benefits offered by the employer (including training) and the simultaneous reduction in the requirements for applicants. The demand for manual workers has also increased. As the authors of the Grant Thornton study point out, requirements are a rather unpredictable element of job offers and often fall outside simple assumptions and trends [17]. A similar study almost a year later showed a different reality. Although successive waves of epidemics damaged the labour market, the number of job offers in October 2021 was 35% higher than in the same period of the previous year. Furthermore, this was also 6% higher than the level recorded in October 2019, that is, before the outbreak of the pandemic. On average, there were 14.7 job vacancies per 1000 inhabitants in the largest cities [18]. A few months later, in January 2022, there was a further increase in the number of vacancies. The market overcame the pandemic, with IT workers and lawyers among the most in demand. The level of job vacancies per 1000 inhabitants in the largest cities remained slightly lower than in October 2021 [13,19]. There was also stability in employers’ expectations, a slight decrease in the attractiveness of job offers and an increased interest in training [19]. In [20], Adamowicz presents both the results of his research and an analysis of the results based on a review of the literature on the impact of the pandemic in four main areas: the situation of employees and employers in the labour market; unemployment and occupational activity; remote work; and anti-crisis measures taken by the Polish government. The analysis of data on the labour market and employees over time presented in [21] shows that the COVID-19 crisis was so significant that it radically affected the labour markets in the short- and medium-term. It also significantly impacted the way work is organised.

The employment rate of graduates is an indicator of both the level of education provided by a university and the alignment of curricula with current labour market needs. Governments and businesses often use the employment rate of graduates as a performance indicator to determine the value of higher education [22]. However, in [23], researchers underlined that it is not expected to match the competencies acquired during studies with the requirements of employment. On the other hand, ref. [24] presents and discusses methods to counteract the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic in higher education institutions in different countries.

Many theoretical and empirical studies analyse the dependence of graduate employment rates on various factors. In [25], the authors examined the impact of six factors of their choice on the employability of graduates of private universities in Bangladesh. These factors are independent variables, such as academic performance, technical skills, communication skills, personality, leadership and motivational skills and teamwork and problem-solving skills, interacting with their stated dependent variables. On the other hand, in [26], the authors considered the perception of the university graduates about the labour market, the COVID-19 pandemic and the level of unemployment and underemployment as factors that affect the employability rate of university graduates. They defined their research question as the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the employment rate of UK graduates. The researchers in [27] identified five independent variables, i.e., graduate skills, job satisfaction, job challenges, employment history and labour market strength. The authors of the paper then examined each of these variables as a separate factor affecting students’ employability. The review of the literature and the analysis of the data used in the research allowed us to identify the necessary factors that determine the employability of Master’s graduates. On this basis, we pre-selected important variables and conducted a study based on the non-probabilistic sampling method, i.e., purposive sampling. The variables used were the COVID-19 pandemic and the fields of study/competencies (Figure 1). We then tried to correlate these factors with the dependent variable, that is, the overall level of graduate employability. We used data from questionnaires completed by the experimental group. The experimental group consisted of students participating in the Motokadra project. The research presented in this article aimed to compare the situation in terms of employment levels of graduates during the COVID-19 pandemic with graduates in the pre-pandemic period. The main objective of the statistical analyses was to determine whether, and to what extent, the support provided by the activities of the aforementioned project allowed participants to adapt to the situation of the labour market during the COVID-19 pandemic. The main research question is therefore: Did the choice of discipline affect the post-graduation employment prospects of the project participants?

The specific research questions are: (RQ1) Are there visible changes in the employment levels of the experimental group in the pre-pandemic and post-pandemic periods? (RQ2) Which study fields are the most resistant to the COVID-19 crisis? The following specific hypotheses correspond to these problems: (H1) Employment rates in the post-pandemic period are significantly lower than in the pre-pandemic period. (H2) Automation and robotics (A&R) graduates are the group most resistant to the crisis, thanks to the demand for engineers with their skills (Figure 1).

The research hypotheses were verified by examining the indicators of the level of employability of the project participants (during the project) and by monitoring the situation of the graduates in the labour market after the end of the project. Both pre-pandemic and pandemic COVID-19 graduates were monitored. The impact of the pandemic crisis on the employability of graduates in the automotive sector in relation to their field of study was also presented.

The article is divided into five parts. The Section 1 provides a background of the research. Section 2 describes the current state of knowledge on the impact of the coronavirus on the automotive industry. Section 3 presents the research methods used. Section 4 presents the results of the research conducted in the experimental group. Section 5 closes the paper with conclusions.

2. The COVID-19 Pandemic as a Cause of the Problems in the Automotive Industry

The global economic problems associated with the COVID-19 pandemic have not spared the automotive industry. The difficult situation in this industry is not only due to the ongoing shutdowns, but mainly to the specifics of the industry. An important characteristic of the automotive industry is clustering and regionalisation, with the location of a car manufacturing plant being closely linked to the proximity of plants producing the parts and components needed to assemble these vehicles. It is essential to note that car manufacturers often use common parts that fit different brands and models, but the regional nature of production has a significant impact on the conditions of the satellite plant. Manufacturers regularly collaborate with companies that carry out design or testing work in response to the market needs of a particular country or region. This also encourages the development of engineering companies near car plants. In this way, the cluster will be sensitive to global prosperity and the situation in the local market. During the 2008–2009 crisis, Pavlinek concluded that clustering and regionalisation of the global automotive industry led to large differences in performance between regions. The consequences of the crisis were most pronounced in the largest regions/clusters and their respective regions [28].

Some researchers argue that the automotive industry should be considered a key industry for the economic development of a country [29]. Therefore, we can also conclude that there is an interconnected system, i.e., the national economy has an impact on the health of the automotive industry. Although the COVID-19 pandemic is certainly an unprecedented event in recent world history, many countries’ economies are experiencing the effects not only of the spread of infection, but also of the measures taken to control the transmission. The introduction of restrictions ranging from simple distance, disinfection and mask rules to weeks-long lockdowns has had a significant impact on the health of many companies, mainly by disrupting the supply chain. In the automotive industry, the shortage of electronic components needed to produce a complete vehicle has been particularly acute. China’s important role as a producer of electronics, as well as complete car components, and the measures taken by this country to combat the SARS-CoV-2 epidemic are among the reasons for this situation. Consequently, various goods produced and exported have been affected. In this situation, several companies in the automotive industry have been forced to implement radical solutions, ranging from reduced working hours and shutdowns to lay-offs. Given the clustering and influence of the automotive industry on the economy of a particular region or country, the crisis quickly spread to other companies. It is worth noting that, according to BAEL, the automotive sector has been a key driver of economic growth in Poland and significant investments have contributed to an increase in exports. Poland is one of the largest car and parts producers in Central and Eastern Europe and, at the same time, the largest market in the region for sales and automotive services [30]. Therefore, it is not difficult to conclude that the crisis in this sector has caused economic problems in the country. On the other hand, the deterioration of the economic situation of society and the feeling of uncertainty about the future caused a significant decrease in the demand for new cars [31]. Polish companies in the automotive sector were very cautious about the development of the economic situation. It suffices to say that almost 90% of companies perceive the future of the industry to be unstable and uncertain. In addition to concerns with the timeliness of deliveries, employee absenteeism or payment delays, 60% of the companies surveyed cited a decline in the number of orders [32]. At the same time, Stojczew sees some opportunities to mitigate the effects of the crisis in the Polish automotive industry on the production profile. Polish plants mainly produce compact cars and parts for these vehicles. On the other hand, this segment is the most popular among buyers during the economic crisis, as shown by European statistics for 2009 [32].

The global impact of the COVID-19 outbreak on the labour market is still being studied and debated. There is no doubt that the spread of the virus and the introduction of restrictions by national governments have had a significant impact on employment patterns and the financial situation of companies and workers. Besides the difficult labour market situation, we must also mention the education system, which has been impacted by the need to change teaching methods and move from direct face-to-face communication to a form of distanced learning. The resulting negative consequences were felt by final-year students facing their first job. According to [33], among Bachelor and Master students who graduate in Denmark in July 2021, 9% were unemployed one year later (July 2022). Columbia University also studied the impact of COVID-19 on the employment of its graduates [34].

In 2018–2020, the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering (ME) at the Silesian University of Technology implemented a didactic project entitled “Development of competencies of students of the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering in response to the needs of the automotive industry—MOTOKADRA”. The project aimed to acquire, develop and improve the competencies of a selected group of students following the needs of the economy, labour market and society within the framework of “Axis III Higher Education for Economy and Development—Action 3.1: Competences in Higher Education”. The project aimed to help graduates better adapt to the labour market. There were also benefits for employers, who were allowed to hire a pre-profiled employee, as the project included industrial placements in companies in the automotive industry, certified training courses and a programme to develop professional, language and communication skills for each participant. The activities planned within the project targeted the labour market needs of the automotive industry, broadly defined.

The project was funded by the European Union under the European Social Fund, Operational Programme Knowledge Education Development (OP KED) [35,36]. Students of technical and engineering disciplines participated in the project. An analysis of the situation in Poland and the literature [20,26,37,38,39,40] on the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the industry revealed a research gap in the search for an answer to whether the pandemic affected the situation of graduates of technical fields of study on the labour market and how participation in the project implemented during this problematic period affected their career preferences.

3. Methodology

The experimental group consisted of 164 full-time second-cycle (Master’s) students in various fields of study participating in the Motokadra project. The students studied the following disciplines:

• Automation and robotics (A&R);
• Mechanics and machine design (M&MD);
• Mechatronics (MTA);
• Management and production engineering (M&PE).

The study used a questionnaire sent directly to the student’s email. The research was carried out in 2020/2021. The study used a non-probability sampling method, i.e., purposive sampling. Purposive sampling has proven to be effective when only a limited number of people can serve as primary data sources due to the nature of the research design and objectives [41,42]. This method is used in comparative studies involving small subsets of the population. It consists of analysing similar and standard characteristics for given groups but operating under slightly different conditions. In the case under study, a group of students completed their studies under so-called normal conditions, that is, in 2019, and the group that graduated during the pandemic in 2020.

The recruitment process of the project participants involved two enrollments: the first enrollment in 2018 and the second enrollment in 2019. Support was provided to people starting their education in the second cycle. At the Silesian University of Technology, second-cycle studies last 3 semesters and end with a Master’s degree. Each recruitment covered a min. of 30% of students in each field and semester.

Table 1. The experimental group.

Number of Persons in the Project	1st Enrollment	2nd Enrollment
TOTAL	87	77
M&MD	40	35
A&R	18	13
M&PE	18	16
MTA	11	13

summarises the number of students recruited for the project. These students represent the experimental group.

All the participants improved their professional skills by taking additional classes or certificate courses.

The project planned to implement five tasks for the target group (164 people). To increase their chances in the labour market and to achieve the project’s objective, it was assumed that at the recruitment stage, a competence improvement programme would be adopted for each project participant, consisting of the following set of activities (tasks):

• Industrial placement in the automotive sector;
• External certified training courses—participation in at least 3 out of 9 planned training courses was foreseen;
• Project activities (Table 1)—participation in at least 2 planned activities for each participant;
• Workshop activities (

  Table 2. List of workshop activities.

  Name of the Activity	Minimum Subject Coverage	Learning Outcomes
  Programming of a robotic work cell	Construction of the robotic work cell, configuration, operation and programming of the industrial robot, integration of robotic work cell components.	Knowledge of robotics and process automation; knowledge of the construction and operation of a robotic production cell.
  Selected LEAN methods for improving production processes	Application of selected LEAN methods (Poka-Yoke, SMED, 5S, SPC) in the improvement and optimisation of production processes.	Knowledge and the ability to apply the methods learned in practise, to solve problems.
  Advanced CAD/CAM systems in support of automotive design processes	Geometric modelling of 3D machine component construction for the automotive industry.	Ability to use an advanced CAD/CAE/CAM system for construction modelling methods.
  Mechatronic systems in the examination and diagnosis of machine components	Methods of machinery and equipment operation (time-preventive until failure occurs, dependent on the condition of the machine—predictive, proactively preventive); recommendations for acquiring diagnostic signals from machinery.	Knowledge of mechatronic system diagnostics.
  Quality engineering and quality management	Quality control in the industry. Creating a quality-oriented organisation. The quality strategy of the organisation. Creative knowledge management. Process approach in QMS. Quality management system documentation—selected elements. Risk management. Analysis using 5S. Eight disciplines method. Decision-making process planning diagram. BSC—balanced scorecard.	Theoretical and practical knowledge of issues related to control and quality control concepts in industry and quality engineering.
  Technologies for forming & moulding products from polymeric materials and their composites	Processing technologies for polymeric materials used in the automotive industry; principles of product technology and selection of polymeric materials, quality control.	Ability to select materials; manufacturing technology for components used in the automotive industry; ability to assess product quality.
  Design of steel heat treatment in automotive processes	Design of heat and thermo-chemical treatment technologies for steel; formation of steel surface; design and optimisation of the heat treatment of steel for the required properties; technical solutions development related to heat treatment for the automotive industry; fundamental development of heat treatment technologies for specific parts.	Extended knowledge of heat and thermo-chemical treatment technologies for steels used in automotive structural components.
  Dynamic modelling in the LS Dyna environment	Introduction to the LS Dyna/LS Prepost environment by examples, contact modelling, preparation of CAD models for simulation, development of proprietary systems for simulation and determination of overloads occurring during car impact and energy absorbed by deformed elements during impact	Knowledge and ability to apply the methods learned in practise; ability to define and solve problems in the field covered by the course.
  Creating innovative products using design thinking	Basics of design thinking methodology, empathisation, problem definition, idea generation, prototype building, testing, motivating students to define problems and search for possible solutions themselves; creating innovative products and services.	Knowledge of innovation development; ability to create customised solutions.
  Basics of social communication with elements of negotiation	Social communication; its formation and modification; effectiveness of social communication; means of communication; presentation methods; interpersonal conflicts; techniques for influencing people; negotiation styles and forms.	Basic social competencies for correct social and interpersonal communication.

  )—participation in at least 3 workshop activities planned for each participant, including compulsory participation in technical English or basic social communication activities with elements of negotiation;
• Study visits to an automotive employer selected by the project promoter—minimum of 2 study visits for each participant.

The programme and scope of all project activities were adjusted to the opinions of the socio-economic environment of the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering of the Silesian University of Technology. The first stage of planning the project activities was to identify the needs of the automotive industry. Thanks to the information gathered from potential employers, a project programme was proposed that considered the needs of employers and future employees. The implementation of the project not only allowed for gaining experience or specialised qualifications that facilitate a professional start in the labour market, but also contributed to the combination of academic knowledge with practical skills.

The implementation of the internship made it possible to increase the student’s professional competencies and allowed them to learn about the functioning of the workplace, the organisational culture, learning team cooperation and time management skills. In this way, the students acquired the skills required by the labour market, which made it easier for them to start their professional careers after graduation. The placements also provided an opportunity to test the students’ aptitudes, enabling them to make more informed career choices in the future. Often, after completing an internship with a particular company, students were offered a permanent job after graduation. The implementation of internships not only contributed to the acquisition of specific skills in the form of combining the theoretical knowledge obtained during studies with the competencies acquired, but also enabled graduates to make a smooth transition from education to employment. In the era of the dynamic development of modern technologies and the implementation of the fourth industrial revolution, so-called hard skills based on a strong foundation of technical knowledge are not sufficient. The nature of many of the new technologies and their applications affects the way projects are implemented and problems are solved. As a result, there is also a need to develop so-called soft skills, such as highly developed interpersonal skills, including the ability to communicate effectively.

The experience, skills and professional qualifications acquired, confirmed by appropriate certificates, should contribute to the competitiveness of graduates in the labour market, while at the same time meeting the requirements of potential employers. The continuous improvement of employees’ qualifications through training is now one of the key elements of an organisation’s learning policy. A qualified employee is one of the most important factors that guarantees the effective functioning of a company.

Another way of supporting the process of improving the competencies of future graduates was a workshop and project activity, using the potential of the group to stimulate mutual learning. Table 2 and

Table 3. List of project activities.

Name of the Activity	Subject Coverage	Learning Outcomes
Design of pneumatic and electro-pneumatic control systems	Design and simulation of pneumatic and electro-pneumatic control systems, under ISO 1219. Pneumatic and electro-pneumatic system operation issues in the context of design and construction requirements.	Knows rules for drawing and interpreting diagrams under ISO 1219. pneumatic/electro-pneumatic.
Design of steel heat treatment in automotive processes	Modern heat treatment technologies (laser treatment), their practical application and trends. Development of technical solutions related to heat treatment for the needs of the automotive industry. Fundamental development of heat treatment technologies for specific parts.	Knows fundamentals of steel heat treatment design in automotive processes. Possess a structured knowledge of industrial heat and thermo-chemical treatment processes used to improve the mechanical properties of steel.
Drive systems for process lines in the automotive industry	Drive systems found in automotive process lines. Principles of operation, selection and operation of drive systems and performing whiteboard and laboratory exercises related to the subjects mentioned. Demonstrate the various applications of the drives discussed using training and demonstration stands and multimedia materials.	Ability to select and operate equipment for drive applications, ability to use programming in drive control. The ability to configure and operate drive-related automation systems.
Technologies for forming products from polymeric materials and their composites	Types and properties of polymeric materials and methods of their modification. Processing technologies for polymeric materials used in the automotive industry including the manufacturing of composites, foams, coating and bonding.	The ability to select materials, manufacturing technology for components used in the automotive industry and assess the quality of the product and identify opportunities for improvement in terms of technology and manufacturing parameters.
Incremental technologies using FDM and jet as an example	Incremental forming processes: jet and FDM technology.	Knowledge and ability to apply the methods learnt in practise, ability to define and solve problems, ability to apply software used in incremental technologies.
Three-dimensional scanning using laser and optical techniques	Introduction to the 3D scanning process; configuration of scanning stations. Working with the scanning system. Positioning of objects to be scanned, selection of resolution and scanning modes. Point-cloud processing tools. Combining, simplifying and smoothing point clouds. Creating and editing triangle meshes. Saving and exporting model data.	Knowledge and ability to apply the methods learnt in practise, ability to define and solve problems and ability to apply software used in laser technologies.

summarise the list of activities carried out in the form of projects and workshops.

All forms of support planned in the project were implemented according to the principle of equal opportunities and non-discrimination, including accessibility for people with disabilities and the principle of equal opportunities for women and men under the EU Funds 2014–2020. Proposals for internship positions were addressed to both women and men, and their filling did not depend on the gender of the candidate. Therefore, the implementation of the traineeships ensured that the project participants were supported on an equal level and with the same quality. Throughout the project, the detailed programme and topics of the placements were developed in cooperation with the host industrial partners. The basic principle for the development of the internship programme was to consider the needs of the industry, i.e., to develop skills in manufacturing engineering in the broadest sense, particularly advanced automation and robotics of manufacturing processes, process design and quality control.

We used the following quantitative techniques to analyse the data: the graduate employment growth rate index and the coefficient of association (Yule’s coefficient of colligation).

4. Results

In March 2020, there was a global outbreak of the COVID-19 virus. The pandemic severely affected the automotive industry [43], which has a significant share in the industrial region of Upper Silesia, Upper Silesian Industrial District—Poland [44]. The disruption of supply chains and the reduction of the number of stationary workers to the necessary minimum affected the possibility of finding an internship for a student or organising a study visit to a production company. As a result of the epidemic and the hygiene regulations introduced, companies reduced or stopped accepting students for internships [45]. In this situation, corrective measures had to be taken to adapt the form and content of teaching and training courses so that they could be delivered at a distance, including laboratory courses. This required, among other things, the introduction of modelling, simulation and visualisation methods of objects and real systems that had previously been used in classroom teaching, and the consequent need to use specialised software. This has helped to significantly offset the impact of pandemic regulatory restrictions. These corrective actions prevented the project from coming to a complete standstill. Thanks to the immediate reaction from the project implementer and close cooperation with the intermediate and managing authority, the training and internship activities were transferred to remote communication and training platforms [46]. This made it possible to complete the project and achieve the required quantitative and qualitative indicators.

The study focused on research areas related to:

• The current status of graduates in the labour market;
• The impact of the coronavirus pandemic on the professional activities of the respondents;
• A comparative analysis of the employment status of the surveyed graduates from the pre-pandemic period—2019, and graduates from 2020, after the declaration of the pandemic state.

The analysis was carried out according to the following procedure, namely:

• Definition of the analytical requirements;
• Data collection;
• Data processing;
• Actual data analysis;
• Reporting of results.

4.1. RQ1: Are There Visible Changes in the Employment Levels of the Experimental Group in the Pre-Pandemic Period and the Post-Pandemic Period?

In this study, we have analysed data on the percentage of employed graduates who completed their studies in 2019–2020. The data are summarised in

Table 4. Overall project.

	Graduates
	2019	2020
Total number of persons in the project	87	77
Number of graduates	82	63
Number of graduates employed	73	46
Non-graduates	5	14

Notes: Non-graduates—those who have not taken their Master’s thesis defence or have resigned from their studies.

and

Table 5. Graduate employment by field of study.

Field of Study
Graduates	M&MD [%]	A&R [%]	MTA [%]	M&PE [%]
2019	94.59	82.35	100	77.78
2020	86.21	90.91	25	60

. The source of the data was statements made and submitted by participating graduates.

Overall, following the COVID-19 pandemic, employment among graduates in the M&MD faculty decreased by more than 8 p.p. y/y, in the MTA faculty by as much as 75 p.p. and in the M&PE faculty by 17.78 p.p.

The one field of study where an increase in employment was observed is A&R (over 8 p.p). It is worth noting that robotics engineering is one of the most future-oriented professions, after programming, especially in the context of Industry 4.0. Figure 2 shows a comparison of employment among graduates from enrollment I and enrollment II, by field of study.

Hypothesis H1 was therefore positively verified. From the results presented, it is clear that employment levels need to be separated into the pre-pandemic period of COVID-19 (enrollment I) and the post-pandemic period (enrollment II). However, a very substantial decrease was observed for MTA graduates (−75%) and M&PE (−22.86%). The reason for such a large decrease is likely to be a reduction in the demand for graduate students in these fields of study.

4.2. RQ2: What Fields of Study Are the Most Resistant to the COVID-19 Crisis?

The following formula was used to calculate the employment growth rate of graduates over the periods analysed:

$$W_t=\frac{X_t-X_{t-1}}{X_{t-1}}·100\%$$

(1)

• where:
• $W_t$—employment growth rate;
• $X_t$—employment level for 2020 graduates;
• $X_{t-1}$—employment level for 2019 graduates.

The employment rate $W_t$ by field of study is summarised in

Table 6. The employment rate $W_t$ by field of study.

Fields	Wt [%]
M&MD	−8.86
A&R	10.39
MTA	−75.00
M&PE	−22.86

and shown in Figure 3.

The employment growth rate ratio clearly shows that there has been a significant decrease in employment compared to 2019. A positive ratio (10.31%) can only be observed for A&R graduates. However, it should be noted that during the pandemic period, the industry has started to implement or expand existing process automation and robotics solutions out of necessity, which has resulted in a very high demand for engineers with competencies in industrial automation and robotics.

Hypothesis H2 was therefore verified positively. Automation and robotics (A&R) graduates are the group most resistant to the crisis, thanks to the demand for engineers with their skills.

4.3. Additional Insights

The research conducted also provided additional evidence that could help answer the next research question: To what extent did participation in the project contribute to an increased interest in employment in the automotive sector? A null hypothesis was formulated for this question: the participation of the students in the project did not contribute to an increased interest in employment in the automotive sector.

Surveys conducted in 2021 show that out of 164 people who participated in the project (recruitment I and II), up to 119 were employed. A total of 53 people reported working in the automotive industry or related fields, and 21 of them found employment after participating in the Motokadra project. The remaining 66 people reported employment in other industries or their businesses (4 people). A total of 63 respondents were employed after the end of their participation in the project, while 56 respondents were employed before the end of their participation in the project. The relevant data are summarised in

Table 7. Summary of student employment during and after participation in the Motokadra project (status from 2021).

Employment	Employment Area
	Automotive and Related	Other
Number of students employed during participation in the project	32	24
Number of students employed after participation in the project	21	42
Total	53	66

.

It is also important to explore how the students’ participation in the project influenced their decision to take up employment, in particular, employment in the automotive industry. We have compiled such data in

Table 8. Summary of student employment in the automotive branch during and after participation in the Motokadra project (status from 2021).

Employment	Employment in the Automotive Branch
		during participation	After participation
	NO	21	0
	YES	32	53

:

Concerning the data above, the Yule’s coefficient determined from Equation (2) is ϕ = 0.497.

$$\mathsf{\varphi }=\sqrt{\frac{{\chi }^2}{N}}$$

(2)

• where:
• ${\chi }^2$—the value of a χ² distribution;
• N—number of elements in the population.

To determine the significance level for this coefficient, it was determined according to the relationship (3):

$${\chi }^2=\frac{N{\left(ad-bc\right)}^2}{\left(a+b\right)\left(a+c\right)\left(b+d\right)\left(c+d\right)}$$

(3)

• where:
• $a$, $b$, $c$ and $d$ are the elements in Table 8.

Given that the critical value of ${\chi }^2$ with respect to the significance level of p-value (p = 0.05) is ${\chi }_{crit}^2=3.841$, the null hypothesis should be rejected. Therefore, it should be concluded that the students’ participation in the Motokadra project has actively contributed to an increased interest in employment in the automotive sector.

However, due to the lack of in-depth surveys, we cannot rule out other factors, such as the fact that participation in the project increased opportunities for more job vacancies, i.e., more certain jobs for the project participants. This type of research should be the subject of future work.

Moving away from statistical considerations, one should also consider the specific conditions of the Upper Silesian labour market, where, until recently, factories of two significant automotive concerns, General Motors and Fiat-Chrysler, operated close to each other. This has resulted in the development of a suppliers’ market, including such major concerns as Valeo, Tenneco Automotive, Nexteer and KIRCHHOFF.

Currently, the GM plant has been taken over by the Stellantis conglomerate, but this has had little impact on the economic environment. Given the presence of major automotive brands in the Silesian labour market, the choice of an employer offering good working conditions, development opportunities and career planning becomes obvious to the graduate. The proportion of graduate employment in automotive and related companies as of January 2021 was approximately 32% for all project participants and approximately 44% for all graduates declaring employment, respectively. Overall, current employment was reported by around 73% of all graduates who participated in the Motokadra project.

5. Conclusions

The COVID-19 pandemic has affected many aspects of people’s lives around the world. Many researchers have tried to determine the extent of this impact on different social groups and the aspects of their lives. The authors of this publication were interested in determining if and how the pandemic affected the employment of graduates in selected fields of study. Japanese researchers have shown that during the COVID-19 pandemic, almost half of the students at the University of Tokyo lost their jobs [47]. The situation of graduates in Bangladesh in terms of unemployment is discussed in [48]. The authors show that the unemployment rate among graduates has increased significantly. In another article [49], the authors determined the employment probability of graduates in the Netherlands who entered the labour market just before and during the pandemic outbreak and compared it with the employment probability before the COVID-19 crisis. A study carried out in Germany [50] during the pandemic analysed the economic situation, mainly related to the employment of university students, and identified the negative impact of the pandemic in this area. The impact of the SARS-CoV-2 crisis on the employment rate of university graduates has also been studied by Polish researchers [20,51,52].

The research carried out in our article also falls in an area related to the negative impact of the pandemic on graduate employment, with a particular focus on the automotive industry, which was most affected by the crisis. It discusses the changes in employment levels of the experimental group in the pre-pandemic and post-pandemic periods. However, the research discussed was limited. It was based on a small sample. Therefore, the issues presented in this paper require further analysis, which will be continued in future studies.

An analysis of the results obtained allows for the following statements to be made: the value of the employment growth rate shows that the employment level of 2020 graduates is significantly lower than in 2019. Employment fell by more than 8 p. p. for M&MD and almost 23 percentage points for M&PE compared to the previous year. These results support the authors’ hypothesis H1. A positive value for the employment growth rate (more than 10%) was obtained only for A&R graduates. This confirms hypothesis H2. According to the authors, the ability to find a job is closely related to the field of study. This is also the case for technical disciplines. The alignment of the study programme and the specialisation of education in the context of the needs of modern industry is crucial, especially as Industry 4.0 begins to take shape. In this context, the Motokadra project has also developed a specialised training programme for students. Graduates with degrees such as A&R or M&MD are more in demand in the labour market than their counterparts with MTA and M&PE degrees.

The authors conducted additional research because the experimental group consisted of participants in a project where one of the main objectives was to improve students’ professional competencies concerning labour market expectations in the automotive sector. There was evidence that the students’ involvement in the project positively impacted their interest in the automotive industry.

In conclusion, the situation of students in the labour market has unfortunately become part of a global trend. The COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated this situation. According to the authors, this situation will continue in the long term and, therefore, it is necessary to monitor the employment of graduates in the labour market to react accordingly in the education of future generations of engineers. Considering the future distributional challenges in the labour market resulting from the potential economic recession, the associated financial austerity measures and the geopolitical instability affecting most countries, research on labour market transitions should be considered relevant and, indeed, necessary. This approach is the only way to adapt the scope of higher education to dynamic changes in the labour market.