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COVID-19 Pandemisinin Toplumsal Etkileri: Zenofobik Eğilimler ve Sonuçları

Yıl 2021, Cilt: 13 Sayı: 3, 537 - 550, 30.09.2021
https://doi.org/10.18863/pgy.822767

Öz

Koronavirüs hastalığı-19 (COVID-19) pandemisi sürecinde, toplumlarda çeşitli alanlarda sorunlar yaşanmıştır. Özellikle sağlık ve ekonomi alanındaki sorunlar önemli noktalara ulaşmış ve bu alanlardaki çalışmalar yoğunlaşmıştır. Öte yandan pandeminin toplumda bireyler arasında psikososyal sorunları da artırdığı görülmüştür. Virüsün yayılmasıyla birlikte insanların yaşam koşulları değişmiştir. Alınan fiziksel mesafe önlemleri kapsamında yaşamları kısıtlanmış ve bu durum çeşitli psikolojik sorunların ortaya çıkmasına neden olmuştur. Yaşam koşullarındaki olumsuzluklar ve maruz kalınan sorunlar, insanları günah keçisi aramaya yönlendirmiştir. Sonuç olarak toplumda yabancı olarak değerlendirilen göçmenlere yönelik olumsuz tutumlar yaygınlaşmaya başlamıştır. Yabancılara karşı korku, nefret ve ön yargı olarak değerlendirilen zenofobi artmıştır. Mevcut çalışmada COVID-19 pandemisi sürecinde zenofobik eğilimlere yol açan faktörler, zenofobik eğilimlerin etkileri ve zenofobik eğilimleri önlemeye yönelik çeşitli adımların değerlendirilmesi amaçlanmıştır. Bu amaçla ilgili literatür gözden geçirilmiştir. Toplumda zenofobik eğilimlerin yaygınlaşması, sosyal uyumun sağlanması konusunda önemli bir risk olarak değerlendirilmektedir. Bu nedenle zenofobik eğilimlerin önlenmesi gerekmektedir. Bu kapsamda pandemi sürecinde göçmenlere dair asılsız bilgilerin ve ön yargıların önüne geçilmesi için gerekli adımlar atılmalıdır. Özellikle medyanın ve politikacıların etkisi dikkate alınmalıdır. Göçmenlerin yaşadığı sosyal ve ekonomik eşitsizlikler giderilmelidir. Toplumdaki sosyal ve adli kurumlara, eğitim ve sağlık hizmeti sunan kuruluşlara erişimleri kolaylaştırılmalıdır. Zenofobik eğilimlerin göçmenler üzerindeki olumsuz etkilerini azaltmak için etkin ruh sağlığı hizmeti sunulmalıdır.

Kaynakça

  • Akat, M. & Karataş, K. (2020). Psychological effects of COVID-19 pandemic on society and its reflections on education. Turkish Studies, 15(4), 1-13. https://dx.doi.org/10.7827/TurkishStudies.44336
  • American Hospital Association. (2020). COVID-19: Acknowledging and addressing racism and xenophobia. https://www.aha.org/system/files/media/file/2020/05/COVID-19_Xenophobia_Resource.pdf
  • Asmelash, L. (2020). UC Berkeley faces backlash after stating ’xenophobia’ is ’common’ or ’normal’ reaction to coronavirus. https://edition.cnn.com/2020/02/01/us/uc-berkeley-coronavirus-xenophobia-%20trnd/index.html.
  • Baker, D. L. (2007). Differential definitions of fear and forgiveness: The case of SARS in North America. International Journal of Public Administration, 30(12–14), 1641–1656. https://doi.org/10.1080/01900690701465301.
  • Banerjee, D., & Rai, M. (2020). Social isolation in Covid-19: The impact of loneliness. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 66(6) 525-527. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764020922269
  • Batasin, S. J. A. (2020). Combating xenophobia in the Covid-19 pandemic: The importance of health literacy. Inquiries Journal, 12(07). Inquiries. http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/a?id=1786
  • Blakeslee, S. (2004). The CRAAP test. LOEX Quarterly, 31(4), 6 7. https://commons.emich.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1009&context=loexquarterly
  • Bozdağ, F. (2020). Xenophobia and social contact in university students. International Journal of Education & Literacy Studies, 8(4), 87-97. http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.ijels.v.8n.4p.87
  • Broid, G. (2020). Xenophobia during Coronavirus pandemic: Attitudes towards immigrants and ethnic groups. Ben Gurion University of the Negev. https://in.bgu.ac.il/humsos/humphrey/DocLib/Pages/Humphrey2019/Xenophobia%20 during%20Coronavirus%20Pandemic%20Gitit%20Broid.pdf
  • Canetti-Nisim, D., Halperin, E., Hobfoll, S. E., & Johnson, R. E. (2006). Xenophobia towards Palestinian citizens of Israel among Russian ımmigrants in Israel: Heightened by failure to make gains in a new democratic society. Helen Kellogg Institute for International Studies.
  • Cheng, H. L. (2020). Xenophobia and racism against Asian Americans during the COVID-19 pandemic: Mental health implications. Journal of Interdisciplinary Perspectives and Scholarship, 3(1), 1-4.
  • Cheah, C. S., Wang, C., Ren, H., Zong, X., Cho, H. S., & Xue, X. (2020). COVID-19 racism and mental health in Chinese American families. Pediatrics. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2020-021816
  • Cheung, H., Feng, Z. & Deng, B. (2020, May 27). Coronavirus: What attacks on Asian reveal about American identity. BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada- 52714804
  • Chiu, O. & Chuang, P. (2020). COVID-19 coronavirus racism incident report. Asian Australian Alliance. www.asianaustralianalliance.net
  • Das, M. (2020). Social construction of stigma and its implications – observations from COVID-19. Social Sciences and Humanities Open. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3599764.
  • Degerman, D., Flinders, M., & Johnson, M. T. (2020): In defence of fear: COVID-19, crises and democracy. Critical Review of International Social and Political Philosophy, 1-22. https://doi.org/10.1080/13698230.2020.1834744
  • Devakumar, D., Shannon, G., Bhopal, S. S., & Abubakar, I. (2020). Racism and discrimination in COVID-19 responses. The Lancet, 395(10231), 1194. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30792-3
  • Fung, I. C.-H., Tse, Z. T. H., Cheung, C.-N., Miu, A. S., & Fu, K.-W. (2014). Ebola and the social media. The Lancet, 384(9961), 2207. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(14)62418-1.
  • Gover, A. R., Harper, S. B., & Langton, L. (2020). Anti-Asian hate crime during the COVID-19 pandemic: Exploring the reproduction of inequality. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 45(4), 647- 667. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-020-09545-1
  • Guadagno, L. (2020). Migrants and the COVID-19 pandemic: An initial analysis. Migration Research Series, (60). International Organization for Migration. https://publications.iom.int/system/files/pdf/mrs-60.pdf
  • Hale, S. (2020). Ulusal eşitlik kurumları bildiriyor: COVID-19'un eşitlik üzerindeki etkileri ve kurumların verdiği karşılıklar. Eşit Haklar için İzleme Derneği. https://www.esithaklar.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/Equinet_EsitlikKurumlari_20200728.pdf
  • He, J., He, L., Zhou, W., Nie, X., & He, M. (2020). Discrimination and social exclusion in the outbreak of COVID-19. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(8), 2933. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17082933
  • Healio. (2020). COVID-19: WHO names disease caused by novel coronavirus. https://www.healio.com/infectiousdisease/emerging-diseases/news/online/%7B1cca9ae9-7191-498b-9758-637eab141b71%7D/covid-19-who-names-disease-caused-bynovel- coronavirus.
  • Hoppe, T. (2018). “Spanish flu”: When infectious disease names blur origins and stigmatize those infected. American Journal of Public Health, 108(11), 1462–1464. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2018.304645.
  • International Organization for Migration. (2020a). Countering xenophobia and stigma to foster social cohesion in the COVID 19 response and recovery. https://www.iom.int/sites/default/files/documents/countering_xenophobia_and_stigma_13 0720.pdf
  • International Organization for Migration. (2020b). Understanding the migration & mobility implications of COVID-19. https://www.iom.int/sites/default/files/documents/covid- 19_analytical_snapshot_29_stigmatization_and_discrimination_update.pdf
  • Kollender, E. & Nimer, M. (2020). Long-term exclusionary effects of COVID-19 for refugee children in the German and Turkısh educatıon systems: A comparatıve perspectıve. Istanbul Policy Center. https://ipc.sabanciuniv.edu/Content/Images/CKeditorImages/20200708-02075629.pdf
  • Leach, M. (2020). Echoes of Ebola: Social and political warnings for the COVID-19 response in African settings. Somatosphere. http://somatosphere.net/forumpost/echoes-of-ebola/
  • Lee, C., Rogers, W. A., & Braunack-Mayer, A. (2008). Social justice and pandemic influenza planning: The role of communication strategies. Public Health Ethics, 1(3), 223–234. https://doi.org/10.1093/phe/phn031
  • Li, S. (2020). “I don’t scare easily, but I am afraid”: The dangers of being Asian American right now. https://www.cosmopolitan.com/politics/a31810912/anti-asian-racism-coronavirus/.
  • Mixed Migration Centre. (2020a). Understanding the impact of COVID-19 on Rohingya and Bangladeshis in Malaysia. http://www.mixedmigration.org/wp- content/uploads/2020/07/124_covid_snapshot_Asia.pdf
  • Mixed Migration Centre. (2020b). Refugees’ and migrants’ access to health services in Tunisia: A focus on discrimination and COVID-19. https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/098_covid_snapshot_NA.pdf
  • Noel, T. K. (2020). Conflating culture with COVID-19: Xenophobic repercussions of a global pandemic. Social Sciences & Humanities Open, 2(1), 100044. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2020.100044
  • Ortona, G. (2017). Xenophobia is really that: A (rational) fear of the stranger. Mind & Society, 16(1-2), 37-49.
  • Redden, E. (2020). Scholars confront coronavirus-related racism in the classroom, in research and in community outreach. https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2020/04/02/scholars-confront-coronavirus-related-%20racism-classroom-research-and-community.
  • Reny, T. T., & Barreto, M. A. (2020). Xenophobia in the time of pandemic: Othering, anti-Asian attitudes, and COVID-19. Politics, Groups, and Identities, 1-24. https://doi.org/10.1080/21565503.2020.1769693
  • Runge, J. (2020). What will be the impact of Covid-19 on public attitudes to immigration? Economics observatory. https://www.coronavirusandtheeconomy.com/question/what- will-be-impact-covid-19-public-attitudes-immigration
  • Rzymski, P., & Nowicki, M. (2020). COVID-19-related prejudice toward asian medical students: A consequence of SARS-CoV-2 fears in Poland. Journal of Infection and Public Health, 13(6), 873-876. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiph.2020.04.013
  • Somvichian-Clausen. (2020). The coronavirus is causing an outbreak in America-of anti-Asian racism. https://thehill.com/changing-america/respect/diversity-inclusion/480749-the-coronavirus-is-causing-an-outbreak-in-anti.
  • Stafford, K. E. (2020). Predicting positive attitudes toward immigrants with altruism [Master's thesis, University of Kentucky]. UK Nowledge. https://uknowledge.uky.edu/polysci_etds/30
  • Stanford News. (2019). The power of language: How words shape people, culture. https://news.stanford.edu/2019/08/22/the-power-of-language-how-words-shape-people- culture/.
  • Tafira, K. (2011). Is xenophobia racism?. Anthropology Southern Africa, 34(3-4), 114-121. https://doi.org/10.1080/23323256.2011.11500015
  • Teixeira da Silva J. A. (2020). Stigmatization, discrimination, racism, injustice, and inequalities in the COVID-19 era. International Journal of Health Policy Managment, 9(11), 484–485. https://doi.org/10.34172/ijhpm.2020.87
  • Wardell-Ghirarduzzi, M. J. (2020). Racism against Asians during COVID-19. https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/11xnFP4aUAbHTw31ZOuLRMBJkf6sMWS2o0GoMu qFbZ9Y/edit#slide=id.g83fd3d91b9_0_24.
  • World Health Organization. (2015). World health organization best practices for the naming of new human infectious diseases. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/163636/WHO_HSE_FOS_15.1_eng.pdf.
  • Wong, Y. (2020). COVID-19 and sinophobia in Singapore. RSİS. https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/CO20046.pdf
  • Yan, H., Chen, N., & Naresh, D. (2020). What’s spreading faster than coronavirus in the US? Racist assaults and ignorant attacks against Asians. https://www.cnn.com/2020/02/20/us/coronavirus-racist-attacks-against-asian- americans/index.html.
  • Zeng, G., Wang, L., & Zhang, Z. (2020). Prejudice and xenophobia in COVID-19 research manuscripts. Nature Human Behaviour, 4(9), 879-879. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-020-00948-y
  • Zubashvili, N. (2020). Deconstructing and reconstructing attitudes towards immigrants: The case of Sweden [Master's thesis, Lund University]. Lund University Libraries. http://lup.lub.lu.se/student-papers/record/9020672

Social Impacts of the COVID-19 Pandemic: Xenophobic Tendency and Their Consequences

Yıl 2021, Cilt: 13 Sayı: 3, 537 - 550, 30.09.2021
https://doi.org/10.18863/pgy.822767

Öz

The Coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19) pandemic process caused problems in various fields in societies. Particularly the problems in the field of health and economy reached a certain point, and studies in these areas have intensified. In addition, the pandemic also increased psychosocial problems among individuals in the society. With the spread of the virus, people’s living conditions changed. Their lives were restricted due to the physical distancing measures taken, and this led to the occurrence of various psychological problems. The negativities in their living conditions and the problems they are exposed to led people to look for scapegoats. Therefore, negative attitudes towards migrants who are regarded as foreigners began to spread in the society. Considered as fear, hatred and prejudice towards foreigners, xenophobia increased. In the present study, it is aimed to evaluate the factors that lead to xenophobic tendencies, the effects of xenophobic tendencies and various steps to prevent xenophobic tendencies during the COVID-19 pandemic process. In this regard, the relevant literature has been reviewed. The spread of xenophobic tendencies in the society is seen as an important risk in ensuring social cohesion. Thus, xenophobic tendencies should be prevented. As such, necessary steps should be taken to prevent unfounded information and prejudices about migrants during the pandemic process. Particular attention should be paid to the influence of the media and politicians. Social and economic inequalities experienced by migrants should be eliminated. Their access to social and judicial institutions, and educational and healthcare establishment in the society should be facilitated. Effective mental health services should be provided in order to reduce the negative impacts of xenophobic tendencies on migrants.

Kaynakça

  • Akat, M. & Karataş, K. (2020). Psychological effects of COVID-19 pandemic on society and its reflections on education. Turkish Studies, 15(4), 1-13. https://dx.doi.org/10.7827/TurkishStudies.44336
  • American Hospital Association. (2020). COVID-19: Acknowledging and addressing racism and xenophobia. https://www.aha.org/system/files/media/file/2020/05/COVID-19_Xenophobia_Resource.pdf
  • Asmelash, L. (2020). UC Berkeley faces backlash after stating ’xenophobia’ is ’common’ or ’normal’ reaction to coronavirus. https://edition.cnn.com/2020/02/01/us/uc-berkeley-coronavirus-xenophobia-%20trnd/index.html.
  • Baker, D. L. (2007). Differential definitions of fear and forgiveness: The case of SARS in North America. International Journal of Public Administration, 30(12–14), 1641–1656. https://doi.org/10.1080/01900690701465301.
  • Banerjee, D., & Rai, M. (2020). Social isolation in Covid-19: The impact of loneliness. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 66(6) 525-527. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764020922269
  • Batasin, S. J. A. (2020). Combating xenophobia in the Covid-19 pandemic: The importance of health literacy. Inquiries Journal, 12(07). Inquiries. http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/a?id=1786
  • Blakeslee, S. (2004). The CRAAP test. LOEX Quarterly, 31(4), 6 7. https://commons.emich.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1009&context=loexquarterly
  • Bozdağ, F. (2020). Xenophobia and social contact in university students. International Journal of Education & Literacy Studies, 8(4), 87-97. http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.ijels.v.8n.4p.87
  • Broid, G. (2020). Xenophobia during Coronavirus pandemic: Attitudes towards immigrants and ethnic groups. Ben Gurion University of the Negev. https://in.bgu.ac.il/humsos/humphrey/DocLib/Pages/Humphrey2019/Xenophobia%20 during%20Coronavirus%20Pandemic%20Gitit%20Broid.pdf
  • Canetti-Nisim, D., Halperin, E., Hobfoll, S. E., & Johnson, R. E. (2006). Xenophobia towards Palestinian citizens of Israel among Russian ımmigrants in Israel: Heightened by failure to make gains in a new democratic society. Helen Kellogg Institute for International Studies.
  • Cheng, H. L. (2020). Xenophobia and racism against Asian Americans during the COVID-19 pandemic: Mental health implications. Journal of Interdisciplinary Perspectives and Scholarship, 3(1), 1-4.
  • Cheah, C. S., Wang, C., Ren, H., Zong, X., Cho, H. S., & Xue, X. (2020). COVID-19 racism and mental health in Chinese American families. Pediatrics. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2020-021816
  • Cheung, H., Feng, Z. & Deng, B. (2020, May 27). Coronavirus: What attacks on Asian reveal about American identity. BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada- 52714804
  • Chiu, O. & Chuang, P. (2020). COVID-19 coronavirus racism incident report. Asian Australian Alliance. www.asianaustralianalliance.net
  • Das, M. (2020). Social construction of stigma and its implications – observations from COVID-19. Social Sciences and Humanities Open. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3599764.
  • Degerman, D., Flinders, M., & Johnson, M. T. (2020): In defence of fear: COVID-19, crises and democracy. Critical Review of International Social and Political Philosophy, 1-22. https://doi.org/10.1080/13698230.2020.1834744
  • Devakumar, D., Shannon, G., Bhopal, S. S., & Abubakar, I. (2020). Racism and discrimination in COVID-19 responses. The Lancet, 395(10231), 1194. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30792-3
  • Fung, I. C.-H., Tse, Z. T. H., Cheung, C.-N., Miu, A. S., & Fu, K.-W. (2014). Ebola and the social media. The Lancet, 384(9961), 2207. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(14)62418-1.
  • Gover, A. R., Harper, S. B., & Langton, L. (2020). Anti-Asian hate crime during the COVID-19 pandemic: Exploring the reproduction of inequality. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 45(4), 647- 667. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-020-09545-1
  • Guadagno, L. (2020). Migrants and the COVID-19 pandemic: An initial analysis. Migration Research Series, (60). International Organization for Migration. https://publications.iom.int/system/files/pdf/mrs-60.pdf
  • Hale, S. (2020). Ulusal eşitlik kurumları bildiriyor: COVID-19'un eşitlik üzerindeki etkileri ve kurumların verdiği karşılıklar. Eşit Haklar için İzleme Derneği. https://www.esithaklar.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/Equinet_EsitlikKurumlari_20200728.pdf
  • He, J., He, L., Zhou, W., Nie, X., & He, M. (2020). Discrimination and social exclusion in the outbreak of COVID-19. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(8), 2933. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17082933
  • Healio. (2020). COVID-19: WHO names disease caused by novel coronavirus. https://www.healio.com/infectiousdisease/emerging-diseases/news/online/%7B1cca9ae9-7191-498b-9758-637eab141b71%7D/covid-19-who-names-disease-caused-bynovel- coronavirus.
  • Hoppe, T. (2018). “Spanish flu”: When infectious disease names blur origins and stigmatize those infected. American Journal of Public Health, 108(11), 1462–1464. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2018.304645.
  • International Organization for Migration. (2020a). Countering xenophobia and stigma to foster social cohesion in the COVID 19 response and recovery. https://www.iom.int/sites/default/files/documents/countering_xenophobia_and_stigma_13 0720.pdf
  • International Organization for Migration. (2020b). Understanding the migration & mobility implications of COVID-19. https://www.iom.int/sites/default/files/documents/covid- 19_analytical_snapshot_29_stigmatization_and_discrimination_update.pdf
  • Kollender, E. & Nimer, M. (2020). Long-term exclusionary effects of COVID-19 for refugee children in the German and Turkısh educatıon systems: A comparatıve perspectıve. Istanbul Policy Center. https://ipc.sabanciuniv.edu/Content/Images/CKeditorImages/20200708-02075629.pdf
  • Leach, M. (2020). Echoes of Ebola: Social and political warnings for the COVID-19 response in African settings. Somatosphere. http://somatosphere.net/forumpost/echoes-of-ebola/
  • Lee, C., Rogers, W. A., & Braunack-Mayer, A. (2008). Social justice and pandemic influenza planning: The role of communication strategies. Public Health Ethics, 1(3), 223–234. https://doi.org/10.1093/phe/phn031
  • Li, S. (2020). “I don’t scare easily, but I am afraid”: The dangers of being Asian American right now. https://www.cosmopolitan.com/politics/a31810912/anti-asian-racism-coronavirus/.
  • Mixed Migration Centre. (2020a). Understanding the impact of COVID-19 on Rohingya and Bangladeshis in Malaysia. http://www.mixedmigration.org/wp- content/uploads/2020/07/124_covid_snapshot_Asia.pdf
  • Mixed Migration Centre. (2020b). Refugees’ and migrants’ access to health services in Tunisia: A focus on discrimination and COVID-19. https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/098_covid_snapshot_NA.pdf
  • Noel, T. K. (2020). Conflating culture with COVID-19: Xenophobic repercussions of a global pandemic. Social Sciences & Humanities Open, 2(1), 100044. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2020.100044
  • Ortona, G. (2017). Xenophobia is really that: A (rational) fear of the stranger. Mind & Society, 16(1-2), 37-49.
  • Redden, E. (2020). Scholars confront coronavirus-related racism in the classroom, in research and in community outreach. https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2020/04/02/scholars-confront-coronavirus-related-%20racism-classroom-research-and-community.
  • Reny, T. T., & Barreto, M. A. (2020). Xenophobia in the time of pandemic: Othering, anti-Asian attitudes, and COVID-19. Politics, Groups, and Identities, 1-24. https://doi.org/10.1080/21565503.2020.1769693
  • Runge, J. (2020). What will be the impact of Covid-19 on public attitudes to immigration? Economics observatory. https://www.coronavirusandtheeconomy.com/question/what- will-be-impact-covid-19-public-attitudes-immigration
  • Rzymski, P., & Nowicki, M. (2020). COVID-19-related prejudice toward asian medical students: A consequence of SARS-CoV-2 fears in Poland. Journal of Infection and Public Health, 13(6), 873-876. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiph.2020.04.013
  • Somvichian-Clausen. (2020). The coronavirus is causing an outbreak in America-of anti-Asian racism. https://thehill.com/changing-america/respect/diversity-inclusion/480749-the-coronavirus-is-causing-an-outbreak-in-anti.
  • Stafford, K. E. (2020). Predicting positive attitudes toward immigrants with altruism [Master's thesis, University of Kentucky]. UK Nowledge. https://uknowledge.uky.edu/polysci_etds/30
  • Stanford News. (2019). The power of language: How words shape people, culture. https://news.stanford.edu/2019/08/22/the-power-of-language-how-words-shape-people- culture/.
  • Tafira, K. (2011). Is xenophobia racism?. Anthropology Southern Africa, 34(3-4), 114-121. https://doi.org/10.1080/23323256.2011.11500015
  • Teixeira da Silva J. A. (2020). Stigmatization, discrimination, racism, injustice, and inequalities in the COVID-19 era. International Journal of Health Policy Managment, 9(11), 484–485. https://doi.org/10.34172/ijhpm.2020.87
  • Wardell-Ghirarduzzi, M. J. (2020). Racism against Asians during COVID-19. https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/11xnFP4aUAbHTw31ZOuLRMBJkf6sMWS2o0GoMu qFbZ9Y/edit#slide=id.g83fd3d91b9_0_24.
  • World Health Organization. (2015). World health organization best practices for the naming of new human infectious diseases. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/163636/WHO_HSE_FOS_15.1_eng.pdf.
  • Wong, Y. (2020). COVID-19 and sinophobia in Singapore. RSİS. https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/CO20046.pdf
  • Yan, H., Chen, N., & Naresh, D. (2020). What’s spreading faster than coronavirus in the US? Racist assaults and ignorant attacks against Asians. https://www.cnn.com/2020/02/20/us/coronavirus-racist-attacks-against-asian- americans/index.html.
  • Zeng, G., Wang, L., & Zhang, Z. (2020). Prejudice and xenophobia in COVID-19 research manuscripts. Nature Human Behaviour, 4(9), 879-879. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-020-00948-y
  • Zubashvili, N. (2020). Deconstructing and reconstructing attitudes towards immigrants: The case of Sweden [Master's thesis, Lund University]. Lund University Libraries. http://lup.lub.lu.se/student-papers/record/9020672
Toplam 49 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil Türkçe
Konular Sosyal Psikoloji
Bölüm Derleme
Yazarlar

Faruk Bozdağ 0000-0002-9862-2697

Yayımlanma Tarihi 30 Eylül 2021
Kabul Tarihi 6 Ocak 2021
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2021 Cilt: 13 Sayı: 3

Kaynak Göster

AMA Bozdağ F. COVID-19 Pandemisinin Toplumsal Etkileri: Zenofobik Eğilimler ve Sonuçları. Psikiyatride Güncel Yaklaşımlar. Eylül 2021;13(3):537-550. doi:10.18863/pgy.822767

Creative Commons Lisansı
Psikiyatride Güncel Yaklaşımlar Creative Commons Atıf-Gayriticari-Türetilemez 4.0 Uluslararası Lisansı ile lisanslanmıştır.