Associations between Physical Activity, Sitting Time, and Time Spent Outdoors with Mental Health during the First COVID-19 Lock Down in Austria
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Material and Methods
2.1. Study Design and Recruitment
2.2. Ethical Statement
2.3. Study Variables
2.3.1. Demographic Data
2.3.2. Physical Activity Factors
- Moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA)/day was assessed with the questions “Since you have been in home isolation, on average, how much time per day do you spend in moderate/vigorous physical activity?” Prior to analysis, data were checked for plausibility in the following ways: (1) if participants reported hours instead of minutes, or vice-versa, these values were transformed; (2) we have removed all entries reporting >16 h of MVPA [26]; (3) we have deleted unrealistic data. For logistic regression analyses, MVPA was dichotomized into ≥30 min/day and <30 min/day, following WHO recommendations [27].
- Sitting time/day was assessed with the question “Since you have been in home isolation, on average how much time per day do you spend sitting?” For logistic regression models, sitting time was treated as a dichotomous variable (<10 h sitting time/day; ≥10 h sitting time/day). This cut-off is based on the study of Gibson and colleagues [28].
- Time spent outdoors/day was asked with the question “Since you have been in home isolation, on average how much time per day do you spend outdoors?” Time spent outdoors was also dichotomised based on the median split of the present study (≥60 min/day; <60 min/day).
2.3.3. Psychological Factors
- Beck Depression Inventory (BDI): Originally, the level of depression is categorized into four types using the validated German version of BDI [31]; no depression (scores 0–9), mild (10–18), moderate (19–29), and severe depression (30–63) [32]. In our analysis individuals scoring between 10–63 points were described as exhibiting symptoms of depression.
- Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI): Originally, the level of anxiety is categorized into four types using the validated German version of the BAI [33]; minimal anxiety (scores 0–7), mild anxiety (scores 8–15), moderate anxiety (scores 16–25), severe anxiety (scores 26–63) [34]. In our analysis, individuals with 8–63 points were described as having symptoms of anxiety.
- Three Item Loneliness Scale (TILS): Experienced loneliness was measured using the TILS [35]; lonely (3–5 points), not lonely (6–9 points).
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- WHO. Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) Advice for the Public 2021. Available online: https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/advice-for-public (accessed on 22 March 2021).
- RegiowikiAT. Chronology of the Corona Crisis in Austria 2021. Available online: https://regiowiki.at/wiki/Chronologie_der_Corona-Krise_in_%C3%96sterreich (accessed on 21 June 2021).
- Tageszeitung. from March until Today: The Chronology of Corona Measures in Austria. Available online: https://www.tt.com/artikel/30758341/von-maerz-bis-heute-die-chronologie-der-corona-massnahmen-in-oesterreich (accessed on 21 June 2021).
- Smith, L.; Jacob, L.; Butler, L.; Schuch, F.; Barnett, Y.; Grabovac, I.; Veronese, N.; Caperchione, C.; Lopez-Sanchez, G.F.; Meyer, J.; et al. Prevalence and correlates of physical activity in a sample of UK adults observing social distancing during the COVID-19 pandemic. BMJ Open Sport Exerc. Med. 2020, 6, e000850. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ammar, A.; Brach, M.; Trabelsi, K.; Chtourou, H.; Boukhris, O.; Masmoudi, L.; Bouaziz, B.; Bentlage, E.; How, D.; Ahmed, M.; et al. Effects of COVID-19 Home Confinement on Eating Behaviour and Physical Activity: Results of the ECLB-COVID19 International Online Survey. Nutrients 2020, 12, 1583. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schuch, F.B.; Bulzing, R.A.; Meyer, J.; López-Sánchez, G.F.; Grabovac, I.; Willeit, P.; Vancampfort, D.; Caperchione, C.M.; Sadarangani, K.P.; Werneck, A.O.; et al. Moderate to vigorous physical activity and sedentary behavior changes in self-isolating adults during the COVID-19 pandemic in Brazil: A cross-sectional survey exploring correlates. Sport Sci. Health 2021, 1–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Castaneda-Babarro, A.; Arbillaga-Etxarri, A.; Gutierrez-Santamaria, B.; Coca, A. Physical activity change during COVID-19 confinement. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 6878. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Maugeri, G.; Castrogiovanni, P.; Battaglia, G.; Pippi, R.; D’Agata, V.; Palma, A.; Musumeci, G. The impact of physical activity on psychological health during Covid-19 pandemic in Italy. Heliyon 2020, 6, e04315. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Rodríguez-Larrad, A.; Mañas, A.; Labayen, I.; González-Gross, M.; Espin, A.; Aznar, S.; Serrano-Sánchez, J.A.; Vera-Garcia, F.J.; González-Lamuño, D.; Ara, I.; et al. Impact of COVID-19 Confinement on Physical Activity and Sedentary Behaviour in Spanish University Students: Role of Gender. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 369. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sadarangani, K.P.; De Roia, G.F.; Lobo, P.; Chavez, R.; Meyer, J.; Cristi-Montero, C.; Martinez-Gomez, D.; Ferrari, G.; Schuch, F.B.; Gil-Salmerón, A.; et al. Changes in sitting time, screen exposure and physical activity during COVID-19 lockdown in south American adults: A cross-sectional study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 5239. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Caputo, E.L.; Reichert, F.F. Studies of physical activity and COVID-19 during the pandemic: A scoping review. J. Phys. Act. Health 2020, 17, 1275–1284. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Arora, T.; Grey, I. Health behaviour changes during COVID-19 and the potential consequences: A mini-review. J. Health Psychol. 2020, 25, 1155–1163. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Stanton, R.; To, Q.G.; Khalesi, S.; Williams, S.L.; Alley, S.J.; Thwaite, T.L.; Fenning, A.S.; Vandelanotte, C. Depression, anxiety and stress during COVID-19: Associations with changes in physical activity, sleep, tobacco and alcohol use in australian adults. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health. 2020, 17, 4065. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hossain, M.M.; Tasnim, S.; Sultana, A.; Faizah, F.; Mazumder, H.; Zou, L.; McKyer, E.L.J.; Ahmed, H.U.; Ma, P. Epidemiology of mental health problems in COVID-19: A review. F1000Research 2020, 9, 636. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Talevi, D.; Socci, V.; Carai, M.; Carnaghi, G.; Faleri, S.; Trebbi, E.; di Bernardo, A.; Capelli, F.; Pacitti, F. Mental health outcomes of the CoViD-19 pandemic. Riv. Psichiatr. 2020, 55, 137–144. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Budimir, S.; Pieh, C.; Dale, R.; Probst, T. Severe mental health symptoms during COVID-19: A comparison of the United Kingdom and Austria. Healthcare 2021, 9, 191. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Rebar, A.L.; Stanton, R.; Geard, D.; Short, C.; Duncan, M.J.; Vandelanotte, C. A meta-meta-analysis of the effect of physical activity on depression and anxiety in non-clinical adult populations. Health Psychol. Rev. 2015, 9, 366–378. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McDowell, C.P.; Dishman, R.K.; Gordon, B.R.; Herring, M.P. Physical activity and anxiety: A systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Am. J. Prev. Med. 2019, 57, 545–556. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Huang, Y.; Li, L.; Gan, Y.; Wang, C.; Jiang, H.; Cao, S.; Lu, Z. Sedentary behaviors and risk of depression: A meta-analysis of prospective studies. Transl. Psychiatry 2020, 10, 26. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Schuch, F.B.; Bulzing, R.A.; Meyer, J.; Vancampfort, D.; Firth, J.; Stubbs, B.; Grabovac, I.; Willeit, P.; Tavares, V.D.O.; Calegaro, V.C.; et al. Associations of moderate to vigorous physical activity and sedentary behavior with depressive and anxiety symptoms in self-isolating people during the COVID-19 pandemic: A cross-sectional survey in Brazil. Psychiatry Res. 2020, 292, 113339. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Faulkner, J.; O’Brien, W.J.; McGrane, B.; Wadsworth, D.; Batten, J.; Askew, C.D.; Badenhorst, C.; Byrd, E.; Coulter, M.; Draper, N.; et al. Physical activity, mental health and well-being of adults during initial COVID-19 containment strategies: A multi-country cross-sectional analysis. J. Sci. Med. Sport 2021, 24, 320–326. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- López-Bueno, R.; Calatayud, J.; Ezzatvar, Y.; Casajús, J.A.; Smith, L.; Andersen, L.L.; Lopez-Sanchez, G.F. Association between current physical activity and current perceived anxiety and mood in the initial phase of COVID-19 confinement. Front. Psychiatry 2020, 11, 729. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Cindrich, S.L.; Lansing, J.E.; Brower, C.S.; McDowell, C.P.; Herring, M.P.; Meyer, J.D. Associations between change in outside time pre- and post-COVID-19 public health restrictions and mental health: Brief research report. Front. Public Health 2021, 9, 619129. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Craig, C.L.; Marshall, A.L.; Sjostrom, M.; Bauman, A.E.; Booth, M.L.; Ainsworth, B.E.; Pratt, M.; Ekelund, U.; Yngve, A.; Sallis, J.F.; et al. International physical activity questionnaire: 12-country reliability and validity. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 2003, 35, 1381–1395. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Mader, U.; Martin, B.W.; Schutz, Y.; Marti, B. Validity of four short physical activity questionnaires in middle-aged persons. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 2006, 38, 1255–1266. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- IPAQ. Guidelines for Data Processing and Analysis of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ)—Short Form. 2004. Available online: https://www.physio-pedia.com/images/c/c7/Quidelines_for_interpreting_the_IPAQ.pdf (accessed on 1 July 2021).
- World Health Organization. Global Recommendations on Physical Activity for Health 2010. Available online: http://www.who.int/dietphysicalactivity/factsheet_recommendations/en/ (accessed on 1 July 2021).
- Gibson, A.M.; Muggeridge, D.J.; Hughes, A.R.; Kelly, L.; Kirk, A. An examination of objectively-measured sedentary behavior and mental well-being in adults across week days and weekends. PLoS ONE 2017, 12, e0185143. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Tennant, R.; Hiller, L.; Fishwick, R.; Platt, S.; Joseph, S.; Weich, S.; Parkinson, J.; Secker, J.; Stewart-Brown, S. The Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale (WEMWBS): Development and UK validation. Health Qual Life Outcomes 2007, 5, 63. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Warwick Medical School. Collect, Score, Analyse and Interpret WEMWBS 2021. Available online: https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/sci/med/research/platform/wemwbs/using/howto (accessed on 1 July 2021).
- Kuhner, C.; Burger, C.; Keller, F.; Hautzinger, M. Reliability and validity of the revised beck depression inventory (BDI-II). Results from German samples. Nervenarzt 2007, 78, 651–656. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Beck, A.T.; Ward, C.H.; Mendelson, M.; Mock, J.; Erbaugh, J. An inventory for measuring depression. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 1961, 4, 561–571. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Geissner, E.; Huetteroth, A. Beck anxiety inventory German version—A reliable, valid, patientfriendly instrument for measuring clinical anxiety. Psychother. Psychosom. Med. Psychol. 2018, 68, 118–125. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Beck, A.T.; Epstein, N.; Brown, G.; Steer, R.A. An inventory for measuring clinical anxiety: Psychometric properties. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 1988, 56, 893–897. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hughes, M.E.; Waite, L.J.; Hawkley, L.C.; Cacioppo, J.T. A short scale for measuring loneliness in large surveys: Results from two population-based studies. Res. Aging 2004, 26, 655–672. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Jacob, L.; Tully, M.A.; Barnett, Y.; Lopez-Sanchez, G.F.; Butler, L.; Schuch, F.; López-Bueno, R.; McDermott, D.; Firth, J.; Grabovac, I.; et al. The relationship between physical activity and mental health in a sample of the UK public: A cross-sectional study during the implementation of COVID-19 social distancing measures. Ment. Health Phys. Act. 2020, 19, 100345. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Qin, F.; Song, Y.; Nassis, G.P.; Zhao, L.; Dong, Y.; Zhao, C.; Feng, Y.; Zhao, J. Physical activity, screen time, and emotional well-being during the 2019 novel coronavirus outbreak in China. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 5170. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Pieh, C.; Budimir, S.; Probst, T. The effect of age, gender, income, work, and physical activity on mental health during coronavirus disease (COVID-19) lockdown in Austria. J. Psychosom. Res. 2020, 136, 110186. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Wolf, S.; Seiffer, B.; Zeibig, J.M.; Welkerling, J.; Brokmeier, L.; Atrott, B.; Ehring, T.; Schuch, F.B. Is physical activity associated with less depression and anxiety during the COVID-19 pandemic? A rapid systematic review. Sports Med. 2021, 51, 1771–1783. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hallgren, M.; Owen, N.; Vancampfort, D.; Dunstan, D.W.; Wallin, P.; Andersson, G.; Ekblom-Bak, E. Associations of sedentary behavior in leisure and occupational contexts with symptoms of depression and anxiety. Prev. Med. 2020, 133, 106021. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Meyer, J.; McDowell, C.; Lansing, J.; Brower, C.; Smith, L.; Tully, M.; Herring, M. Changes in Physical Activity and Sedentary Behavior in Response to COVID-19 and Their Associations with Mental Health in 3052 US Adults. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 6469. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Duncan, G.E.; Avery, A.R.; Seto, E.; Tsang, S. Perceived change in physical activity levels and mental health during COVID-19: Findings among adult twin pairs. PLoS ONE 2020, 15, e0237695. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- European Commission. Austria Physical Activity Factsheet. Available online: https://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/288052/AUSTRIA-Physical-Activity-Factsheet.pdf#:~:text=According%20to%20the%20HBSC%20results,hours%20per%20week%20(8) (accessed on 17 August 2021).
- Klesges, R.C.; Eck, L.H.; Mellon, M.W.; Fulliton, W.; Somes, G.W.; Hanson, C.L. The accuracy of self-reports of physical activity. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 1990, 22, 690–697. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lee, P.H.; Macfarlane, D.J.; Lam, T.H.; Stewart, S.M. Validity of the international physical activity questionnaire short form (IPAQ-SF): A systematic review. Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys. Act. 2011, 8, 115. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- McDougall, C.W.; Brown, C.; Thomson, C.; Hanley, N.; Tully, M.A.; Quilliam, R.S.; Bartie, P.J.; Gibson, L.; Oliver, D.M. From one pandemic to another: Emerging lessons from COVID-19 for tackling physical inactivity in cities. Cities Health 2020, 29, 1–4. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Geng, D.C.; Innes, J.; Wu, W.; Wang, G. Impacts of COVID-19 pandemic on urban park visitation: A global analysis. J. For. Res. 2020, 32, 553–567. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Nienhuis, C.P.; Lesser, I.A. The impact of COVID-19 on women’s physical activity behavior and mental well-being. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 9036. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Spiro, N.; Perkins, R.; Kaye, S.; Tymoszuk, U.; Mason-Bertrand, A.; Cossette, I.; Glasser, S.; Williamon, A. The effects of COVID-19 lockdown 1.0 on working patterns, income, and wellbeing among performing arts professionals in the United Kingdom (april–june 2020). Front. Psychol. 2021, 11, 4105. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- de Rezende, L.F.; Rey-López, J.P.; Matsudo, V.K.; do Carmo Luiz, O. Sedentary behavior and health outcomes among older adults: A systematic review. BMC Public Health 2014, 14, 333. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Owen, N.; Sparling, P.B.; Healy, G.N.; Dunstan, D.W.; Matthews, C.E. Sedentary behavior: Emerging evidence for a new health risk. Mayo Clin. Proc. 2010, 85, 1138–1141. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- López-Sánchez, G.F.; López-Bueno, R.; Gil-Salmerón, A.; Zauder, R.; Skalska, M.; Jastrzębska, J.; Jastrzębski, Z.; Schuch, F.B.; Grabovac, I.; Tully, M.A.; et al. Comparison of physical activity levels in Spanish adults with chronic conditions before and during COVID-19 quarantine. Eur. J. Public Health 2021, 31, 161–166. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Variables | No (%) | ≥30 MVPA min/Day | <10 Sitting Hours/Day | ≥60 min Outdoors/Day |
---|---|---|---|---|
Overall | 498 (76.5) | 415 (53.5) | 514 (66.1) | |
Age | ||||
18–34 years | 373 (56.2) | 76.3 | 46.7 | 61.1 |
35–64 years | 256 (38.6) | 75.1 | 59.6 | 71.5 |
≥65 years | 35 (5.3) | 88.6 | 80.0 | 80.0 |
Gender | ||||
Female | 481 (72.4) | 78.9 | 55.5 | 68.3 |
Male | 176 (26.5) | 70.7 | 49.1 | 60.9 |
Nonbinary, transfer, or intersex | 7 (1.1) | 57.1 | 28.6 | 42.9 |
Marital status | ||||
Married or registered partnership | 167 (25.2) | 80.5 | 65.1 | 76.0 |
In a relationship but not married | 231 (34.8) | 77.6 | 47.7 | 62.2 |
Single, divorced, widowed, separated | 266 (40.1) | 72.4 | 51.8 | 63.3 |
Net household income per year | ||||
<16,000 € | 165 (25.9) | 80.2 | 53.4 | 64.8 |
16,000–26,000 € | 136 (20.5) | 78.0 | 53.4 | 67.6 |
26,001–41,000 € | 169 (25.5) | 74.4 | 50.9 | 67.3 |
41,001–60,000 € | 120 (18.1) | 77.1 | 55.1 | 63.0 |
>60,000 € | 74 (11.1) | 69.0 | 57.5 | 68.5 |
Employment status | ||||
Employed | 390 (58.7) | 73.5 | 51.8 | 63.8 |
Student | 200 (30.1) | 80.3 | 48.4 | 66.7 |
Homemaker | 9 (1.4) | 100 | 100 | 88.9 |
Retired, not able to work | 49 (7.4) | 83.7 | 79.6 | 81.6 |
Unemployed | 16 (2.4) | 66.7 | 50.0 | 56.3 |
Current smoking status, yes | 112 (16.9) | 72.7 | 47.7 | 65.2 |
Alcohol intake, yes | 399 (60.1) | 76.8 | 51.9 | 64.4 |
Diagnosed chronic physical illness, no | 269 (40.5) | 74.0 | 44.5 | 63.5 |
Diagnosed mental illness, no | 513 (77.3) | 75.6 | 54.5 | 59.3 |
Physical Activity | Before | Isolation |
---|---|---|
≥30 min/min of MVPA | 89.0% | 76.3% |
Median sitting h/day (IQR) | 8 (5–9) | 9 (6–12) |
Median time spent outdoors min/day (IQR) | 120 (90–180) | 60 (30–180) |
m (SD); Median (IQR); % | ≥30 MVPA min/Day | <10 Sitting Hours/Day | ≥60 min Outdoors/Day | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale Short form | 25.7 (4.3) | 26.0 (4.2) | 26.5 (4.1) | 26.1 (4.2) |
Probable depression (7–17 points) | 25 (3.9) | 56.5 | 20.0 | 44.4 |
Possible depression (18–20 points) | 57 (8.8) | 62.5 | 49.1 | 63.2 |
Average mental well-being (21–27 points) | 314 (48.5) | 76.4 | 51.3 | 64.0 |
High mental well-being (28–35 points) | 252 (38.9) | 82.4 | 60.7 | 72.6 |
Beck Depression Inventory | 7.5 (3–13) | 7 (3–12) | 6 (2–12) | 7 (3–12) |
No depression (0–9 points) | 381 (59.3) | 82.0 | 60.1 | 70.9 |
Depression (10–63 points) | 261 (40.7) | 69.8 | 44.4 | 59.8 |
Beck Anxiety Inventory | 7.4 (1–10) | 4 (1–9) | 4 (1–9) | 4 (1–9) |
No anxiety (0–7 points) | 424 (66.7) | 79.5 | 57.3 | 70.0 |
Anxiety (8–63 points) | 212 (33.3) | 71.5 | 46.2 | 58.5 |
Loneliness Scale | ||||
Lonely (3–5 points) | 342 (52.5) | 82.3 | 56.4 | 70.5 |
Not lonely (6–9 points) | 309 (47.5) | 70.3 | 50.2 | 61.5 |
≥30 Versus <30 MVPA min/Day | <10 Versus ≥10 Sitting Hours/Day | ≥60 Versus <60 min Outside/Day | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
OR | 95% CI | p | OR | 95% CI | p | OR | 95% CI | p | |
Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale Short form (SWEMWBS) | |||||||||
Probable depression (7–17 points) | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||
Possible depression (18–20 points) | 1.98 | 0.43–3.36 | 0.732 | 3.58 | 1.13–11.35 | 0.031 | 1.93 | 0.73–5.15 | 0.187 |
Average mental well-being (21–27 points) | 2.61 | 1.06–6.46 | 0.038 | 3.48 | 1.22–9.92 | 0.020 | 1.93 | 0.83.4.48 | 0.128 |
High mental well-being (28–35 points) | 3.92 | 1.51–10.15 | 0.005 | 4.61 | 1.58–13.43 | 0.005 | 2.44 | 1.01–5.86 | 0.047 |
Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) | |||||||||
No depression (0–9 points) | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||
Depression (10–63 points) | 0.44 | 0.29–0.66 | <0.001 | 0.60 | 0.43–0.85 | 0.004 | 0.68 | 0.48.0.96 | 0.030 |
Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI) | |||||||||
No anxiety (0–7 points) | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||
Anxiety (8–63 points) | 0.62 | 0.41–0.94 | 0.024 | 0.71 | 0.50–1.02 | 0.066 | 0.70 | 0.49–1.02 | 0.060 |
Loneliness Scale (TILS) | |||||||||
Not lonely (6–9 points) | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||
Lonely (3–5 points) | 0.46 | 0.31–0.69 | <0.001 | 0.93 | 0.67–1.30 | 0.676 | 0.74 | 0.52–1.04 | 0.080 |
Equal or More MVPA | |||
---|---|---|---|
OR | 95% CI | p | |
Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale Short form | |||
Probable depression (≤17 points) | 1.00 | ||
Possible depression (18–20 points) | 3.24 | 0.93–11.22 | 0.064 |
Average mental well-being (21–27 points) | 4.20 | 1.34–13.15 | 0.014 |
High mental well-being (28–35 points) | 8.61 | 2.68–27.62 | <0.001 |
Beck Depression Inventory | |||
Depression (10–63 points) | 1.00 | ||
No depression (0–9 points) | 2.57 | 1.80–3.67 | <0.001 |
Beck Anxiety Inventory | |||
Anxiety (8–63 points) | 1.00 | ||
No anxiety (0–7 points) | 2.01 | 1.39–2.90 | <0.001 |
Loneliness Scale | |||
Lonely (3–5 points) | 1.00 | ||
Not lonely (6–9 points) | 2.62 | 1.85–3.70 | <0.001 |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Haider, S.; Smith, L.; Markovic, L.; Schuch, F.B.; Sadarangani, K.P.; Lopez Sanchez, G.F.; Lopez-Bueno, R.; Gil-Salmerón, A.; Rieder, A.; Tully, M.A.; et al. Associations between Physical Activity, Sitting Time, and Time Spent Outdoors with Mental Health during the First COVID-19 Lock Down in Austria. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 9168. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18179168
Haider S, Smith L, Markovic L, Schuch FB, Sadarangani KP, Lopez Sanchez GF, Lopez-Bueno R, Gil-Salmerón A, Rieder A, Tully MA, et al. Associations between Physical Activity, Sitting Time, and Time Spent Outdoors with Mental Health during the First COVID-19 Lock Down in Austria. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(17):9168. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18179168
Chicago/Turabian StyleHaider, Sandra, Lee Smith, Lovro Markovic, Felipe B. Schuch, Kabir P. Sadarangani, Guillermo Felipe Lopez Sanchez, Rubén Lopez-Bueno, Alejandro Gil-Salmerón, Anita Rieder, Mark A. Tully, and et al. 2021. "Associations between Physical Activity, Sitting Time, and Time Spent Outdoors with Mental Health during the First COVID-19 Lock Down in Austria" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 17: 9168. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18179168