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eISSN: 2379-6367

Pharmacy & Pharmacology International Journal

Research Article Volume 8 Issue 3

Anti-HIV and Anti-HCV drugs are the putative inhibitors of RNA-dependent-RNA polymerase activity of NSP12 of the SARS CoV-2 (COVID-19)

Md Amjad Beg, Fareeda Athar

Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in Basic Science, Jamia Millia Islamia, India

Correspondence: Dr Fareeda Athar, Associate Professor, Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in Basic Sciences, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi-110025, India, Tel +91-11-26981717, Fax +91-11.26980164

Received: May 28, 2020 | Published: June 15, 2020

Citation: Beg MA, Athar F. Anti-HIV and Anti-HCV drugs are the putative inhibitors of RNA-dependent-RNA polymerase activity of NSP12 of the SARS CoV2 (COVID-19). Pharm Pharmacol Int J. 2020;8(3):163-172. DOI: 10.15406/ppij.2020.08.00292

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Abstract

Corona virus is the emerging infectious viral agent that had to threaten the world with its epidemic since 2003 with SARS and 2013 with MERS virus. This virus again stuck the whole world with its robust pandemic in 2019whena novel form of the corona virus was emerged in and infect the local population of Wuhan, China. The virus named as SARS CoV-2 and the disease caused by this infectious virus is introduced as COVID 19. Since December 2019, this virus took more than 432, 973 lives all around the world. This study elaborates the role of HIV and HCV drug in targeting nsp12 gene of SARS CoV 2 that is responsible for RNA dependent RNA polymerase activity. The work employed homology modelling, structure validation and molecular docking analysis to evaluate the binding affinity and interaction analysis between NSP12 (RdRp) protein and HIV/HCV drugs. Outcome of the study impacted on Nelfinavir (NFV), Raltegravir (RAL) and Delavirdine (DLV) among Anti-HIV and Paritaprevir (PTV), Beclabuvir (BCV) and Ledipasvir (LDV) among Anti-HCV as the most effective inhibitors of SARS CoV-2 RdRp ternary complexes. The drugs have a strong binding affinity with the residues that are present in the active site of RdRp of the virus and essential for its replication. This study establishes significant information in the direction of therapeutic development as we are dealing with the situation where we urgently required medication or vaccine to combat COVID-19. Therefore, this study provides essential molecular information about the FDA approved antiviral drugs that can be used to treat this disease. Importantly, the listed drugs had never prioritized for their effectiveness against COVID-19.

Keywords: COVID-19, NSP12 (RdRp), antiviral drug, molecular dockingv

Abbreviations

NCBI, National Centre for Biotechnology Information; SARS CoV-2, severe acute respiratory syndrome Corona virus 2; RdRp, RNA dependent RNA polymerase; CoVs, Coronaviruses; NSP, non-structural protein; NSPs, non-structural protein sequences; PDB, protein data bank; 3D, three dimensional; FDA, Food and Drugs Administration; HCV, Hepatitis C virus; HCMV, human cytomegalovirus; HSV, herpes simplex virus; HPV, human papillomavirus; HIV, human immunodeficiency virus; VZV, Varicella zoster virus; +ssRNA, single stranded RNA of positive sense

Introduction

The start of the year 2020 also creates the epidemic situation in the world as a series of confounded influenza-like cases were reported in China in December 2019. In a very short period, this epidemic changed into a dangerous pandemic and spread to other countries. WHO reported that this pandemic is due to novel Corona virus (2019-CoV) which is a new virus in corona virus group that cause COVID-19.1-3 The virus can invade into the respiratory, gastrointestinal, hepatic, and central nervous system of human, livestock, birds, bat, mouse, and many other wild animals. This COVID-19 outbreak in china had broken all the parameters and measures that occur in 2002 due to severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) in 2002/2003 and the Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS).4,5 It is enormously conceivable that novel CoVs emergence is inescapable in the future due to changes in the genome, climate and ecology, and the increased interactions of human with animals. These viruses are one of the largest virus group of order Nidovirales. Nidovirales consists of CoronaviridaeArteriviridaeMesoniviridae and Roniviridae families. Coronaviridae family is further subdivided into Coronavirinae and Toronavirinae. Coronavirinae is comprised of four genera i.e. alpha, beta, gamma and delta. Novel corona virus or SARS CoV-2 is a part of Beta corona virus genera. SARS CoV-2 is closely related to two relatively bat corona viruses known as bat-SL-CoVZC45 and bat-SL-CoVZXC21 with almost 88% similarity. This similarity range is much different from the SARS corona virus (79%) and MERS corona virus (50%). Moreover, one of the recent reports suggests pangolins as a possible virus reservoir. Pangolin-CoV is 91.02% and 90.55% identical to SARS-CoV-2 and one bat corona virus RaTG13 respectively and the S1 protein of CoV is very much identical to the virus samples obtained from dead pangolin lung samples.6 Although there have been multiple reports are present on the human transmission of the virus, the exact virus reservoir is remained to find.

The genome is single-stranded RNA of positive sense (+ssRNA) of approximately 30kb size.7,8 There are mainly two types of proteins that are characterized by structural and non-structural proteins. Structural proteins include spikes, nucleocapsids, matrix and envelope proteins whereas non-structural proteins (NSPs) comprise of RNA dependent RNA polymerase protein (RdRp) that is coded by NSP12 gene.9,10 The first ORFs covers almost two-thirds of the whole genome length that encodes 16 NSPs. Ribosomal frame shifting between ORF1a and ORF1b leads to the production of polyproteins 1a (pp1a) and polyprotein 1b (pp1b) respectively. RdRp is an essential enzyme for running life cycle of various RNA viruses and therefore continuously been targeted to eradicate RNA viruses. The genome of CoVs contains 6 ORFs, envelope protein, membrane glycoprotein, nucleocapsid phosphoprotein and surface protein. RdRp is a crucial enzyme in the life cycle of RNA viruses, including coronaviruses. RdRp is targeted in different RNA viruses, including Hepatitis C Virus (HCV), Zika Virus (ZIKV), and coronaviruses (CoVs).11-16

Suddenly this disease grabs the attention of all due to a tremendous increase in the number of incidences and deaths cases in China. Till 26th May 2020, total 5,631,824 COVID-19 confirmed cases, 2,399,258 recovered cases and 348,965 deaths were reported in around 205 countries areas and territories.17 The infrequent arrival and epidemics prompt us that this CoVs is an unembellished universal threat to health. Therefore, there is an imperative prerequisite to developed advanced and effective therapies and vaccines against CoVs. The current study provides some essential aspects about NSP12 gene of SARS CoV-2 that codes RNA dependent RNA polymerase enzyme (RdRp). The enzyme is a pronounced target for previous therapeutic approaches to target several RNA viruses. RdRp is a conserved protein in the corona virus family and comprise two conserved aspartate residues in the active site of the enzyme. Controlling RNA virus infection is a critical task because these viruses mutate with greater velocity as compare to any DNA virus. The study includes homology modelling of NSP12 gene using template-based modelling, its validation and molecular docking analysis with Human Immuno Deficiency Virus (HIV) drugs, HCV drugs and anti-malarial drugs.18,19

Materials and methods

Homology modelling of SARS CoV-2RdRp

Complete genome sequence of SARS CoV-2 is available in the National Centre for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) with the accession no. (NC_045512.2) was used for homology modelling.20 The homology modelling was done by using the SWISS-MODEL server which is freely available, and it built the protein model with the given target-template sequence alignment.20 The identity matrix showed that NSP12 protein from SARS-CoV is 97% identical with the SARS CoV-2 (orf1ab gene sequence). The identical sequence template PDB ID: 6NUR confirmed which is 97.05% identical to NSP12.17 The predicted 3D model structure validation was done by SAVES meta server of the University of California Los Angles (UCLA) where some server RAMPAGE, Verify3D and ERRAT which predicted different stereochemical properties.21-23 The final validated model was qualified for protein quality prediction by using ProQ server which was then optimized to find correct models in contrast to other methods. The protein quality prediction measured two types of predicted score LGscore and MaxSub. LGscore is -log of a P-value and MaxSub ranges from 0-1, where 0 is insignificant and 1 most significant.24-26 Before moving to the molecular docking, the topological properties of protein structures, including binding pockets was determined by using CASTp 3.0. Few residues are responsible for predicted ligand binding site in the protein where the ligand can reversibly bind. However other amino acid residues of the protein were providing correct orientation and confirmation.27,28

Molecular docking

Preparation of Ligand and Receptor

Docking studies were accomplished on Acer Laptop with Intel® Core i3 8th Gen, 12 GB RAM and 1 TB hard disk running on Windows 10 operating system. Antiviral compounds which wereFood and Drugs Administration (FDA) approved drugs proposed from the literature and were downloaded from PubChem (https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/) in the SDF format.29 Chem 3D Pro 14.0 was used for making the 3D structure of the antiviral drugs which is enlisted in Supplementary Table S1.30 The downloaded files were converted by the PyRx 0.8 tool (FastSpring, Amsterdam, Netherlands) were minimize the 3D structure and produce the dock file in PDBQT format. AutoDockVina is an open-source program which was utilized in all docking experiments.31,32 74 compounds were tested against SARS CoV-2 RdRp where 70 compounds were antiviral drugs against different viruses like (HCV, HCMV, HIV, HSV, HPV, VZV and Influenza viruses) and rest compounds are in a clinical trial or already published as effective in various manner.

S. No

Drug name

Abbreviation

Virus Family

1

Abacavir

ABC

HIV

2

Acyclovir

ACV

HSV, VZV

3

Adefovir

-

HBV

4

Amantadine

AMT

Influenza virus A

5

Amprenavir

APV

HIV-1

6

Asunaprevir

ASV

HCV-1

7

Atazanavir

ATV

HIV

8

Beclabuvir

BCV

HCV-1

9

Boceprevir

BOC

HCV-1

10

Brivudine

BVDU

HSV-1, VZV

11

Catechin

SINE

HPV

12

Cidofovir

CDV

HCMV

13

Cobicistat

COBI

HIV

14

Daclatasvir

DCV

HCV-1

15

Darunavir

DRV

HIV

16

Dasabuvir

DAS

HCV-1

17

Delavirdine

DLV

HIV-1

18

Didanosine

ddI

HIV

19

Dolutegravir

DTG

HIV

20

Docosanol

C22

HSV

21

Efavirenz

EFV

HIV-1

22

Elbasvir

EBR

HCV-1 or 4

23

Elvitegravir

EVG

HIV

24

Emtricitabine

(-) FTC

HIV

25

Entecavir

ETV

HBV

26

Entecavirine

ETR

HIV-1

27

Famciclovir

FCV

HSV, VZV

28

Favipiravir

FPV

Influenza virus A, B & C

29

Fosamprenavir

FPA

HIV-1

30

Foscarnet

PFA

HCMV, HSB

31

Ganciclovir

GCV

HCMV

32

Grazoprevir

GZR

HCV-4

33

Idoxuridine

IDU

HSV-1

34

Indinavir

IDV

HIV

35

Lamivudine

3TC

HIV, HBV

36

Laninamivir

-

Influenza virus A &B

37

Ledipasvir

LDV

HCV-1

38

Letermovir

-

HCMV

39

Lopinavir

LPV

HIV

40

Maraviroc

MVC

HIV

41

Nelfinavir

NFV

HIV

42

Nevirapine

NVP

HIV-1

43

Ombitasvir

OBV

HCV-1

44

Oseltamivir

OTV

Influenza virus A & B

45

Paritaprevir

PTV

HCV-1

46

Penciclovir

PCV

HSV

47

Peramivir

PRV

Influenza virus A & B

48

Podofilox

PDX

HPV

49

Raltegravir

RAL

HIV

50

Ribavirin

RBV

HCV-1

51

Rilpivirine

RPV

HIV-1

52

Rimantadine

RIM

Influenza virus A

53

Ritonavir

RTV

HIV

54

Saquinavir

SQV

HIV

55

Simeprevir

SMV

HCV-1

56

Sofosbuvir

SOF

HCV-3

57

Stavudine

d4T

HIV

58

Telaprevir

TVR

HCV-1

59

Telbivudine

LdT

HBV

60

Tenofovir alafenamide

TAF

HIV

61

Tenofovir

-

HIV

62

Tipranavir

TPV

HIV-1

63

Trifluridine

TFT

HSV

64

Valacyclovir

VACV

HSV, VZV

65

Valganciclovir

VGCV

HCMV

66

Vaniprevir

VPV

HC-1

67

Vidarabine

VDR

HSV, VZV

68

Zalcitabine

ddC

HIV

69

Zanamivir

ZAN

Influenza virus A & B

70

Zidovudine

AZT

HIV

Table S1 Antiviral drugs against SARS COV-2 NSP 12 (RdRp)

Top hit selection against SARS CoV-2 RdRp

Molecular docking analysis of SARS HCoV-2 RdRp was done by determining binding affinity scores (docking scores) based on top 10 hits were selected out of 74 antiviral drugs. The selected drugs further analyzed based on the interactions where false-positive were avoided and highly interactive partners were selected having a binding pocket of SARS CoV-2 RdRp.

Interaction analysis: Visualization and Evaluation

The interaction analysis of the protein-ligand and interaction of the binding sites were studied by using PyMOL and Chimera.33-35 The possible dock conformations of the 2D ligand-receptor interactions was accomplished using Discovery Studio.36 Further, binding analysis using the visualization approach was carried out to understand the binding pattern of the drug with protein.37-41

Result and discussion

Modelling of SARS CoV-2 RdRp

Homology modelling of SARS CoV-2 RdRp was done which showed the sequence identity 97.05% with the template PDB ID: 6NUR (SARS-NSP12) (Figure 1). This 6NUR structure is the complex structure of NSP12 with NSP7 and NSP8 with 3.1 Å resolution.17 The generated SARS CoV-2 RdRp structure QMEAN (qualitative model energy analysis) score is -0.68 which was the optimized score for further study.20 The model also includes two zinc ions and it encompasses residues 4501-5315 of the SARS CoV-2 orf1ab. The model was validated by SAVES, the Verify3D server evaluated the scoring as 91.16% of the residues have average 3D-1D score >= 0.2 and the score pass while the quality factor predicted by ERRAT server was 95.9839.22,23 The Ramachandran plot showed that 92.5% residues were in the allowed region, 7.2% residues in the additional allowed region 0.3% else in the generously allowed region and no residues in the disallowed region (see the Ramachandran plot in Figure S1).21 The protein quality estimation by ProQ server found the LG score was 6.636 and MaxSub score was 0.610 which was predicted to be asquality of good model.26 Superimposed cartoon model of SARS-NSP12 and SARS CoV-2 RdRp in red active sites residues region (Figure 2a & 2b) was shown using CASTp 3.0 serve. The SARS CoV-2 RdRp model showed the A chain and two cofactor ions between triphosphate moiety.27

Figure 1 Homology modelling and Model validation: The SARS CoV-2 RdRp model built by Swiss model server with template PDBID: 6NUR and sequence identity is 97.05%. Model validation by SAVES metaserver were stereochemistry of the model was good, with 100% residues are in allowed region.

Figure 2 The three-dimensional structure SARS HCoV-2 RpRd: (a) The superimposed three-dimensional cartoon representation of SARS CoV-2 RpRd in (Grey) and the SARS-CoV RdRp in (Sky blue) by using Chimera. (b) Homology model of SARS CoV-2 RpRd predicted binding site residues in (red color) using CASTp 3.0.

Figure S1 Ramachandran plot by RAMPAGE: In Ramachandran plot shows 100% residues are in allowed region.

Docking identifies (+ssRNA) antiviral drugs as a potent inhibitor

In molecular docking, the screening of 74 antiviral drugs produced log files, where the affinity (kcal/mol) obtained and docked poses for discrete compounds were analyzed. This log-file screen-out because of the analysis of binding score or docking score and the docking scores are enlisted in Supplementary Table S2. Molecular docking result having best binding affinity (docking score) was screened based on all the log files and output files and top 19 antiviral drugs were selected that were screened based on binding energies (kcal/mol) (Figure 3).32,41 HIV drugs (Delavirdine, Dolutegravir, Indinavir, Maraviroc, Nelfinavir, Raltegravir, Rilpivirine, Ritonavir, Saquinavir and Tipranavir) and HCV drugs (Beclabuvir, Boceprevir, Daclatasvir, Elbasvir, Ledipasvir, Paritaprevir, Simeprevir, Sofosbuvir and Vaniprevir) was used in the study were enlisted in Table 1.29 Furthermore, the interaction analysis of selected drugs with the SARS CoV-2 RdRp on the specific sites highlights that the selected antiviral drug putatively acts as an inhibitor against the respective enzymes.

S.No.

Drugs Name

Molecular formula

Molecular weight

Docking score

1

Abacavir

C14H18N6O

286.33

-7.1

2

Acyclovir

C8H11N5O3

225.2

-5.9

3

Adefovir

C8H12N5O4P

273.19

-6.7

4

Amantadine

C10H17N

151.25

-5.5

5

Amprenavir

C25H35N3O6S

505.6

-7.2

6

Asunaprevir

C35H46ClN5O9S

748.3

-7.9

7

Atazanavir

C38H52N6O7

704.9

-7.5

8

Azithromycin

C38H72N2O12

749

-7.9

9

Beclabuvir

C36H45N5O5S

659.8

-9.9

10

Boceprevir

C27H45N5O5

519.7

-8

11

Brivudine

C11H13BrN2O5

333.13

-6.2

12

Catechin

C15H14O6

290.27

-7.5

13

Cidofovir

C8H14N3O6P

279.19

-5.7

14

Cobicistat

C40H53N7O5S2

776

-7.8

15

Daclatasvir

C40H50N8O6

738.9

-8.4

16

Darunavir

C27H37N3O7S

547.7

-7.9

17

Dasabuvir

C26H27N3O5S

493.6

-8.8

18

Delavirdine

C22H28N6O3S

456.6

-8.5

19

Didanosine

C10H12N4O3

236.23

-6.2

20

Dolutegravir

C20H19F2N3O5

419.4

-8

21

Efavirenz

C14H9ClF3NO2

315.67

-7.7

22

Elbasvir

C49H55N9O7

882

-9.5

23

Elvitegravir

C23H23ClFNO5

447.9

-7.3

24

Emtricitabine

C8H10FN3O3S

247.25

-6

25

Entecavir

C12H15N5O3

277.28

-7.1

26

Etravirine

C20H15BrN6O

435.3

-7.1

27

Famciclovir

C14H19N5O4

321.33

-6.3

28

Favipiravir

C5H4FN3O2

157.1

-5.3

29

Fosamprenavir

C25H36N3O9PS

585.6

-6.9

30

Foscarnet

CH3O5P

126.01

-4.8

31

FV 100

C27H35N3O6

497.6

-7.8

32

Ganciclovir

C9H13N5O4

255.23

-6.9

33

Grazoprevir

C38H50N6O9S

766.9

ND

34

Hydroxychloroquine

C18H26ClN3O

335.9

-6

35

Idoxuridine

C9H11IN2O5

354.1

-6

36

IDX-184

C25H35N6O9PS

626.6

-7.3

37

Imiquimod

C14H16N4

240.3

-6.8

38

Indinavir

C36H47N5O4

613.8

-8.4

39

Lamivudine

C8H11N3O3S

229.26

-5.6

40

Laninamivir

C13H22N4O7

346.34

-7

41

Ledipasvir

C49H54F2N8O6

889

-9.7

42

Letermovir

C29H28F4N4O4

572.5

-8.3

43

Lopinavir

C37H48N4O5

628.8

-7.9

44

Maraviroc

C29H41F2N5O

513.7

-8.1

45

Nelfinavir

C32H45N3O4S

567.8

-8.8

46

Nevirapine

C15H14N4O

266.3

-7.1

47

Ombitasvir

C50H67N7O8

894.1

-7.8

48

Oseltamivir

C16H28N2O4

312.4

-5.6

49

Paritaprevir

C40H43N7O7S

765.9

-10

50

Penciclovir

C10H15N5O3

253.26

-5.4

51

Peramivir

C15H28N4O4

328.41

-7.3

52

Podofilox

C22H22O8

414.4

-7.3

53

Raltegravir

C20H21FN6O5

444.4

-8.7

54

Ribavirin

C8H12N4O5

244.2

-6.3

55

Rilpivirine

C22H18N6

366.4

-8.4

56

Rimantadine

C12H21N

179.3

-6.1

57

Ritonavir

C37H48N6O5S2

720.9

-8

58

Saquinavir

C38H50N6O5

670.8

-9.6

59

Simeprevir

C38H47N5O7S2

749.9

-9.4

60

Sofosbuvir

C22H29FN3O9P

529.5

-8

61

Stavudine

C10H12N2O4

224.21

-6.1

62

Telaprevir

C36H53N7O6

679.8

-7.9

63

Telbivudine

C10H14N2O5

242.23

-6.9

64

Tenofovir alafenamide

C21H29N6O5P

476.5

-7.1

65

Tenofovir

C9H14N5O4P

287.21

-6.1

66

Tipranavir

C31H33F3N2O5S

602.7

-8.2

67

Trifluridine

C10H11F3N2O5

296.2

-6.7

68

Valacyclovir

C13H20N6O4

324.34

-6.2

69

Valganciclovir

C14H22N6O5

354.36

-6.6

70

Vaniprevir

C38H55N5O9S

757.9

-9.9

71

Vidarabine

C10H13N5O4

267.24

-6.4

72

Zalcitabine

C9H13N3O3

211.22

-5.8

73

Zanamivir

C12H20N4O7

332.31

-6.4

74

Zidovudine

C10H13N5O4

267.24

-6.3

Table S2 Docking Score (binding affinity) of antiviral drugs against SARS COV-2 NSP 12 (RdRp)

Figure 3 Top hit selected by molecular docking: By using AutoDock Vina molecular docking experiment calculated top binding energies (docking scores) of HIV drugs in (blue) are Tipranavir (TPV), Saquinavir (SQV), Ritonavir (RTV), Rilpivirine (RPV), Raltegravir (RAL), Nelfinavir (NFV), Maraviroc (MVC), Indinavir (IDV), Dolutegravir (DTG), Delavirdine (DLV) and HCV drugs in (brown) are Vaniprevir (VPV), Sofosbuvir (SOF), Simeprevir (SMV), Paritaprevir (PTV), Ledipasvir (LDV), Elbasvir (EBR), Daclatasvir (DCV), Boceprevir (BOC), Beclabuvir (BCV) against SARS CoV-2 RdRp.

S.No.        

Drug name             

Abv.           

Docking score

Mode of action

HIV Drugs

1

Delavirdine

DLV

-8.5

High toxicity not to be used as much

2

Dolutegravir

DTG

-8

Targets HIV integrase to inhibit the integration of viral DNA into human chromosomes

3

Indinavir

IDV

-8.4

Blocks the active site of HIV protease to prevent cleavage of viral precursor proteins

4

Maraviroc

MVC

-8.1

Blocks GP120-CCR5 interaction to inhibit HIV entry

5

Nelfinavir

NFV

-8.8

Blocks the active site of HIV protease to prevent cleavage of viral precursor proteins

6

Raltegravir

RAL

-8.7

Targets HIV integrase to inhibit the integration of viral DNA into human chromosomes

7

Rilpivirine

RPV

-8.4

Binds directly to HIV RT and inhibits DNA synthesis

8

Ritonavir

RTV

-8

Blocks the active site of HIV protease to prevent cleavage of viral precursor proteins

9

Saquinavir

SQV

-9.6

Blocks the active site of HIV protease to prevent cleavage of viral precursor proteins

10

Tipranavir

TPV

-8.2

Blocks the active site of HIV protease to prevent cleavage of viral precursor proteins

HCV drugs

1

Beclabuvir

BCV

-9.9

Inhibits activity of the VZV DNA polymerase

2

Boceprevir

BOC

-8

Protease inhibitor

3

Daclatasvir

DCV

-8.4

Targets NS5A and NS3/4A protease to prevent HCV replication

4

Elbasvir

EBR

-9.5

Inhibit activities of NS5A and NS3/4A protease, respectively

5

Ledipasvir

LDV

-9.7

Harvoni inhibits HCV NS5A and NS5B polymerase to prevent RNA replication

6

Paritaprevir

PTV

-10

Inhibits activities of HCV NS5A, NS5B polymerase, and NS3/4A protease

7

Simeprevir

SMV

-9.4

Target HCV NS5B and NS3/4 protease, respectively

8

Sofosbuvir

SOF

-8

Target HCV NS5B and NS3/4 protease, respectively

9

Vaniprevir

VPV

-9.9

Protease inhibitor

Table 1 Selected antiviral drugs against SARS COV-2 NSP 12 (RdRp)

Interaction studies of antiviral drugs against SARS CoV-2 RdRp

The interaction analysis of SARS CoV-2 RdRp ternary complexes suggested the in HIV-drugs as the putative inhibitor against SARS CoV-2 RdRp isNelfinavir (NFV), Raltegravir (RAL) and Delavirdine (DLV) shown in Figure 4 and in HCV-drugs suggested inhibitor Paritaprevir (PTV), Beclabuvir (BCV) and Ledipasvir (LDV) shown in Figure 5 have closely interacted with active sites and substrate binding domains.33 The interaction study suggested that the active sites consist of several important active site residues involved in the interaction are VAL301, LYS302, ASN434, ARG346, LYS391, SER392, ASN398, LYS402, LYS436, THR437, ARG444, VAL448, ARG460, LEU467, ASP509, CYS513, ASP514, ARG515, SER570, THR571, SER573, ALA576, THR578, ALA579, ASN582, SER650, ASP651 and ASP736. This interaction study confirmed that there was the involvement of Carbon-Hydrogen bond (C-H bond), Hydrogen bond (H-bond), Pi-Anion bond (π-Anion), Pi- Sigma bond (π-Sigma), Amide Pi-stacked bond (Amide π stacked) and Alkyl bond. The important points of interaction study between antiviral drugs against SARS CoV-2 RdRp were enlisted in Table 2.36 The interaction study also suggested that the interaction between the drug and RdRp enzyme is a strong interaction and therefore targeting this enzyme with the listed inhibitors might be an advantageous step in the direction of therapeutic development.

Figure 4> Interaction studies of SARS CoV-2 RdRp against HIV drugs Nelfinavir (NFV), Raltegravir (RAL), Delavirdine (DLV) drugs: Crystal structure of SARS CoV-2in (Lane A) Interactions of active site residues in SCoV 2-NFVcomplex (Lane B) Interactions of active site residues in SCoV 2-RALcomplex (Lane C) Interactions of active site residues in SCoV 2-DLVcomplex and the 2D interaction analysis done by Discovery studio.

Figure 5 Interaction studies of SARS CoV-2 RdRp against HCV drugs Paritaprevir (PTV), Beclabuvir (BCV), Ledipasvir (LDV) drugs: Crystal structure of SARS CoV-2in (Lane A) Interactions of active site residues in SCoV 2-PTVcomplex (Lane B) Interactions of active site residues in SCoV 2-BCVcomplex (Lane C) Interactions of active site residues in SCoV 2-LDVcomplex and the 2D interaction analysis done by Discovery studio.

S.No.

Compound Name

Interacting Residues

C-H bond

H-bond

π-Anion

π-Sigma

Amide π stacked

Alkyl

HIV Drugs

1

Delavirdine

ALA 576

 

ALA 579

THR 578

 
     

ASN 582

       
     

SER 650

       

2

Nelfinavir

SER 573

ARG 444

       
     

ASP 509

       
     

ASP 514

       
     

ARG 515

       

3

Raltegravir

SER 650

ASP 343

ARG 515

     
     

ARG 444

       
     

ASP 514

       
     

THR 571

       
     

SER 573

       
     

ASN 582

       

HCV Drugs

1

Beclabuvir

SER 392

 

VAL 448

 

LYS 391

     

ASN 398

       
     

ASN 434

       

2

Ledipasvir

LYS 391

ASP 651

   

LEU 467

     

ARG 446

     

CYS 513

     

ARG 460

     

ALA 576

     

ASP 514

     

ALA 579

3

Paritaprevir

SER 392

ASP736

 

THR 437

VAL 301

     

ASN 398

     

LYS302

     

LYS 402

     

LYS 436

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

VAL 448

Table 2 Selected antiviral drugs with their interacting residues of SARS COV-2 NSP 12 (RdRp)

Concluding remarks

We are currently dealing with the global health emergency of COVID-19 pandemic. The disease almost covers every country with devastating nature in China, Italy, United States of America, Brazil and Spain. The disease had already accounted for almost 432, 973 deaths on the worldwide level. It is the third major outbreak of corona virus after SARS and MERS epidemic. Antiviral drugs have been developing using that target viral RNA polymerase. The present study deals with anti-viral drugs to declare their effectiveness against COVID-19. The study includes Anti-HIV drugs Delavirdine, Nelfinavir and Raltegravir and Anti-HCV drugs Beclabuvir, Ledipasvir and Paritaprevir most effective binding partner among various listed drugs. The binding study establishes a significant platform for further testing the binding parameters in in-vitro condition and beneficial for determining inhibitory effect of the inhibitor against the enzyme. Especially, the advanced therapeutic target generation would need essential clinical and experimental studies for further and strongly confirming drug effectiveness against disease.

Acknowledgments

The authors acknowledge support from the Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in Basic Science, Jamia Millia Islamia University. Md. Amjad Beg also acknowledges University Grants Commission Maulana Azad National Fellowship for the financial support and Jamia Millia Islamia University.

Conflicts of interest

The authors declare that they have no potential conflict of interests.

Author’s contributions

Md Amjad Beg: Conceptualization idea, Methodology designing, Software handling, writing manuscript and evaluate results.

Dr Fareeda Athar: Reviewing and corresponding author.

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