Joonghak Lee- College of Business, Gachon University, Seongnam, South Korea
In the context of the organizational crisis caused by COVID-19, scholars and professionals have focused on factors that help employees stay at their jobs and perform well. In an uncertain era, grit is a significant employee and organizational sustainability trait. Using 890 responses, this study determined how grit affects organizational performance and used contingencies including supportive climate and transformational leadership as moderators. The hypotheses were tested by examining the relationship between grit and organizational performance and the moderating effects of supportive climate and transformational leadership. Further, these hypotheses were supported by confirmatory factor analysis, PROCESS macro analysis, and bootstrapping. Grit was found to be positively associated with organizational performance; meanwhile, supportive climate and transformational leadership strengthen the relationship between grit and performance. Both theoretical and practical implications of the findings are discussed. This study makes a theoretical contribution through its assessment of the impact of grit on organizational performance. Trait activation theory can explain how grit can be expressed through organizational climate and leadership. With regard to practice, grit can be used as a vital factor for personnel selection and a supportive climate should be provided to ensure a desirable organizational climate.
Introduction
The business environment of an organization is constantly changing, and the competition for survival is fiercer than ever (Fernández-Aráoz, 2014). On March 11, 2020, the World Health Organization declared the COVID-19 outbreak a pandemic; it is recognized as becoming the fastest and most widely spreading disease since the 1918 influenza pandemic (Ferguson et al., 2020). This public health crisis has resulted in simultaneous decreases in demand and supply (Gopinath, 2020) and influenced employee attitudes and behaviors at work (Nguyen et al., 2022). Further, companies are facing unprecedented organizational crises (Budhwar and Cumming, 2020). Organizational crises are defined as time-consuming and uncertain events or time periods caused by specific issues (Pearson and Clair, 1998). An organizational crisis causes anxiety and despair among members, teams, and organizations as a whole and also in terms of employee turnover and financial losses (Madera and Smith, 2009). During a crisis, organizations recognize that the environment is highly uncertain, and employees are expected to constantly perceive uncertainty in their daily work environment (Mitroff et al., 1988). Thus, what are the essential qualities for employees to work effectively during such a crisis?
Personal resources such as motivation, traits, and characteristics aid individuals under difficult circumstances (Sinclair, 2017). Grit is among the most well-known factors that may increase employees' adaptability to create a thriving environment (Arco-Tirado et al., 2019). In an uncertain environment, it is critical to maintain one's passion and perseverance (Littman-Ovadia and Lavy, 2016; Luthans et al., 2019). Grit can be defined as “the passion and perseverance for achieving long-term goals” (Duckworth et al., 2007, p. 1087). Individuals must be tenacious to keep up with environmental changes (Westphal et al., 2008). Thus, scholars and professionals worldwide and industries have paid close attention to grit (Jordan et al., 2019).
Despite its widespread acceptance as a predictor and determinant of performance, more research is needed to better understand the nature and mechanism of grit (Credé et al., 2017; Khan et al., 2020). There has been little research that sheds light on how each employee's grit is activated in response to their environment (Jordan et al., 2019; Choi et al., 2020). Previous research on grit at the individual level has yielded conflicting results (Kannangara et al., 2018). For example, while one study found that women have higher levels of grit than men on average (Schmidt et al., 2018), another found no difference between women and men in terms of grit (Hodge et al., 2018). Similarly, some studies have failed to investigate the positive impact of grit on achievement-related variables (Lam and Zhou, 2022).
This study aims to determine how grit can improve organizational performance by discussing factors such as supportive climate and transformational leadership. Previous research has shown that employees with higher grit are more motivated to perform well. This study presents a model of the relationship between grit and organizational performance that includes two moderators. It adds to the literature by proposing contingencies and psychological mechanisms based on trait activation theory (TAT), addressing mixed results of the impact of grit. Second, this study focused on macro-level performance, which has not been discussed much in previous studies. Third, we contribute to the literature by indicating the personal characteristics required in a crisis-stricken organization.
Furthermore, HR managers can consider grit as a significant trait for personnel selection and improve the supportive climate to boost organizational performance through gritty employees. When a gritty employee contributes to the organization, supportive climate and transformational leadership can boost grit's impact. From the practitioner's perspective, transformational leadership is an important characteristic and style for increasing the impact of grit in the organization. Furthermore, HR managers can promote and develop leaders with such characteristics through training and coaching programs, indicating specific implications for the HR department.
The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. A literature review and overarching theory were used to develop hypotheses. Thereafter, sections on methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion are presented.
Literature Review and Hypothesis Development
Trait Activation Theory
The TAT has contributed to studies explaining how individual traits, that is, predispositions of employees to behave consistently in response to situational stimuli, are an important determinant of individual behavior in the workplace (Day and Silverman, 1989). TAT shows that the impact of a trait would vary depending on the cues provided by work situations (Tett et al., 2021). TAT emphasizes situation trait relevance to understand where a personality trait is most likely to manifest itself in conduct (Tett and Guterman, 2000) and posits that traits interact with trait-related situational activators (O'Brien et al., 2021). The importance of situational strength in TAT cannot be overstated.
Situation strength refers to the extent to which situational limitations are prevalent in the environment (Lievens et al., 2006). Strong situations have unambiguous behavioral demands, with the consequences of behavior clearly identified and discussed (Caspi and Moffitt, 1993). In contrast, in weak situations, behavioral expectations are relatively ambiguous, resulting in huge differences in how individuals respond to situations.
TAT proposes three sources of trait-relevant cues: task-related cues (e.g., daily activities), social cues (e.g., interactions with coworkers), and organizational cues (e.g., organizational climate, culture, and structure; Mischel, 1973). The importance of a trait and its context should be aligned such that the individual possesses the trait that allows them to respond effectively to the situation's indications (Luria et al., 2019). By stating the following, the trait activation principle formalizes the trait–situation relationship: Arousal of a trait by a trait-relevant situational stimulus is required for the behavioral expression of that trait (Tett and Guterman, 2000).
Grit
Grit has received much attention as a crucial characteristic for career success (Clark and Clark, 2019). It has been identified as a predictor of personal achievement (Duckworth et al., 2007), and researchers have recently highlighted the importance of grit for goal achievement in the face of adversity and challenge (Jordan et al., 2019). Traits are personal differences that reflect relatively stable temperaments of thought, feeling, or behavior (Fleeson and Jayawickreme, 2015). Behavioral traits reveal how people react (Matthews, 2018). For nearly a century, psychologists have debated whether consistent effort and focused interest are distinct from talent but equally important to success (Eskreis-Winkler et al., 2014). The number of studies on grit has increased, but none have presented consistent results in terms of performance (Lam and Zhou, 2022). Grit, an unrecognized characteristic of individuals that leads to success in today's era, is gaining attention because it can be developed (Lee and Stankov, 2018) and has a significant impact on individual achievement, including organizational citizenship behavior and academic performance (Heckman and Masterov, 2007; Arifin et al., 2019; Luthans et al., 2019).
Grit can be a psychological resource that boosts peak performance in different settings and contexts (Duckworth and Quinn, 2009). For example, a person with high grit excels in a variety of activities (Eskreis-Winkler et al., 2014). Employees with high grit are interested in long-term goals and strive to achieve them despite internal and external obstacles. A recent meta-analysis discovered a link between grit and performance (Credé et al., 2017).
Grit is defined as a desire to focus on a specific goal and the persistence to strive for it despite failures and adversity (Duckworth et al., 2007). Gritty employees continue to practice deliberately to gain new skills (Duckworth et al., 2007; Jordan et al., 2019). Employees are expected to cope and survive in a workplace where uncertainty and complexity are increasing (Luthans et al., 2019). However, they are likely to face difficulties in their work, which increases the likelihood of failure. Grit as a personal trait provides the resilience required to persevere in such situations (Gilson and Davis, 2019). According to TAT, if the organization is made up of hardworking employees, the firm can expect high performance in the event of a crisis. Accordingly, we hypothesize the following:
Hypothesis 1. Grit is positively related to organizational performance.
Supportive Climate
Several decades of research have revealed that organizational climate has a significant impact on critical economic outcomes (e.g., Schneider et al., 1998, 2011; Borucki and Burke, 1999; Collins and Smith, 2006). Psychological climate can be defined as current impressions of events, practices, and processes and the types of behaviors that are rewarded, supported, and expected in a certain environment (Schneider, 1987; James et al., 2008). Organizational climate can be defined as a reflection of the behaviors and reactions of employees to what the organization assumes and emphasizes (Khalili, 2016). Further, employee perceptions of processes, policies, and practices are referred to as organizational climate (Reichers and Schneider, 1990).
Organizational climate performs a directive function by channeling employee behaviors toward critical organizational goals (Slåtten et al., 2021). A climate exists when the significance of environmental events and traits is sufficiently shared by a large group of people, such as a workgroup or business unit (McKay and Avery, 2006; Zhao et al., 2019). Moreover, the climate develops because of organizational rules and processes that promote specific employee actions and behaviors, resulting in the formation of shared behavioral expectations (Bowen and Ostroff, 2004).
Individual performance can be explained as a multiplication of ability, support, and effort (Schermerhorn et al., 1990). Simply put, employees can perform based on the support they receive from their organization, colleagues, and systems. Renn and Prien's (1995) study first introduced the connection between a supportive climate and performance. Research shows that a positive organizational climate is associated with higher performance (Gardner III and Schermerhorn, 1992; Ferris et al., 1998; Gardner and Schermerhorn, 2004). A supportive climate is defined as how members trust, care for, and collaborate with one another, and it is an important type of psychological climate in the organization (Kim et al., 2021). The study created a supportive climate by focusing on desirable outcomes, such as performance, job satisfaction, and commitment, and demonstrating construct validity (Rogg et al., 2001; Tripathi and Tripathi, 2022).
Because TAT suggests that organizational climate can activate personal traits, we propose that perceptions of a supportive climate may create the strong environment required for grit to thrive. The organizational climate and operational levels can serve as cues to activate personal traits (Tett et al., 2021). Individuals, for example, are more likely to face new challenges and strive to overcome them if they perceive support from their organizations and colleagues. In other words, a positive work environment can act as a trait activator in the relationship between grit and perceived organizational performance. The following hypotheses are established based on prior studies and inferences:
Hypothesis 2. A supportive climate strengthens the relationship between grit and organizational performance.
Transformational Leadership
Transformational leadership has received considerable attention from scholars and practitioners (Charoensukmongkol and Puyod, 2021; McCombs and Williams, 2021; Kloutsiniotis et al., 2022) because organizations face challenges and high unpredictability (Santoso et al., 2021). When an organization undergoes rapid change, the leader must demonstrate a clear direction and a shared vision for organizational change (Atkinson and Mackenzie, 2015). Transformational leaders present a vision for the future in order to change the organization and elicit members' participation to achieve it (Pawar and Eastman, 1997; Popli and Rizvi, 2017; Park et al., 2019). Further, they use positive emotions and messages to present their vision and motivate employees toward higher performance (Bass, 1985, 1990; Shamir et al., 1993). The transformational leadership construct consists of four components: “idealized influence,” “intellectual stimulation,” “inspirational motivation,” and “individualized consideration” (Bass and Avolio, 2000). Transformational leaders influence their followers in two ways: first, by developing employees (Bakker et al., 2022) and, second, by strengthening the relations between the employee and the organization (Cole et al., 2009).
Transformational leaders assist employees in producing better-than-expected results (Kouzes and Posner, 1996; Epitropaki and Martin, 2005). Further, transformational leaders, in particular, focus on supporting employees, enabling them to have a bond with their organization via effective internal communication (Santoso et al., 2022). TAT emphasizes the context dependence of the relationship between traits and performance (Luria et al., 2019). A study conducted in 78 countries and 22 industries showed a positive relationship between grit and transformational leadership (Caza and Posner, 2021). Social cues, such as leadership, activate latent traits (Tett and Guterman, 2000). Therefore, we propose the following hypothesis:
Hypothesis 3. Transformational leadership strengthens the relationship between grit and organizational performance.
Method
Data Collection and Common Method Bias
This study conducted an online survey of employees at company A, a prominent South Korean commercial conglomerate active in the retail, food, service, hotel, chemical, and other industries. It now has a workforce of more than 55,000 local employees and 400 expatriates from 31 countries. We chose company A as our data source because it is among the most recognizable companies in South Korea considering its diverse industry offerings. We met a manager from company A's human resources department and asked him to randomly select samples from local employees of 36 affiliates to avoid convenience sampling bias. The authors were given a list of potential participants based on gender and age derived from the HR system but without personal identifiers or e-mail addresses. Finally, the poll was sent to 2,400 employees using the company's internal mail system, which took 15 mins. Among 1,600 local employees, 890 completed the survey (56% response rate). The reason behind the low response rate might be because of the anonymity ensured in the survey to avoid common method bias (Podsakoff et al., 2003).
According to Baruch and Holtom (2008), the average response rate of 463 studies was 52.7%, and they argue that response rate is a factor to consider when assessing the quality of empirically conducted research. Therefore, because the response rate was low in this study, we have identified it as a weakness in the limitation section. The participants belonged to 36 companies. Their job ranks were manager and senior manager. Moreover, the female and male ratios were 30.2 and 69.8%, respectively. The participants belonged to the following age groups: 20–29 years (22.2%), 30–39 years (37.0%), 40–49 years (30.4%), and 50 years and above (10.3%). Because our sample is biased toward males, we consulted previous literature on gender differences for grit and controlled for gender in the analysis. Some studies have found gender differences in grit (Rojas et al., 2012; Christensen and Gerald, 2014), while others have found no differences (Batres, 2011; Washington, 2016; Hodge et al., 2018).
Furthermore, our data came from a single source, which poses a risk of bias in behavioral research (Rodríguez-Pinto et al., 2011). We conducted the survey anonymously, improved the readiness of item wording, and separated the measurement of the independent and dependent variables, as recommended by Podsakoff et al. (2003). We also used Harman's one-factor analysis, and the results showed that all measures of goodness of fit for the one-factor model were worse for the original measurement model data (χ2/df = 14.91, CFI = 0.72, TLI = 0.70, RMSEA = 0.12, SRMR = 0.10). Therefore, common method bias was deemed unproblematic with this dataset.
Measurement
The explanatory variable (grit), two potential moderating variables (supportive climate and transformational leadership), and response variable (organizational performance) were all observed, along with demographic and other variables (gender, age, and job rank). Except for the control variables, all variables were evaluated using a 6-point Likert scale (1 = not at all, 6 = very likely), and the reliability of the variables was confirmed using the Cronbach's alpha index.
Grit
Duckworth and Quinn (2009) proposed the Short Grit Scale (Grit–S) for measuring grit. Furthermore, the sub-elements passion and provenance were each measured with four questions; thus, the scale had a total of eight questions. This scale is a simplified version of the Grit-O (Duckworth et al., 2007), which is comprised of 12 questions. “When a new project is created, I often feel that it comes in the way of existing work,” “I find it difficult to see my pre-set goals through till the end,” “I do my best as much as much as possible” and “I do not easily get frustrated even if there are obstacles,” are some sample questions from the instrument. The Cronbach's alpha, which indicates the scale's internal reliability, was 0.74.
Supportive Climate
To assess the supportive climate (SC), we used items reported by Rogg et al. (2001) that had shown significant validity in previous research (Luthans et al., 2008). We used five items from two of the four factors to create a shortened scale that included aspects of SC that were most relevant to their research (i.e., employee cooperation and coordination factors). Examples of items include “My organization collaborates to get the task done effectively and efficiently” and “Employees make personal sacrifices when necessary to help the firm prosper.” The Cronbach's alpha of the scale was 0.90.
Transformational Leadership
Transformational leadership (TL) was examined by translating Bass and Avolio's (1993) MLQ-6S. TL consists of four components, and each factor is measured using four items. Examples of the items include “My CEO acts to make employees feel good about being around him/her,” “My CEO can clearly express what the company can do and will be able to do,” and “My CEO lets employees think of the problems they have solved so far in a new way and seem them in a new perspective.” The Cronbach's alpha of the scale was 0.95.
Organizational Performance
This study used the variable perceived market performance to assess organizational performance (OP) (Singh, 2004). Because it was derived from the question presented to participants to evaluate their company's OP by comparing it to competitors, the measure was relative or benchmarked. This variable included sales growth, profitability, market share, and the quality of the product or service. A sample item is “How would you rate your company's sales growth in comparison to its main competitors?” The Cronbach's alpha of the scale was 0.90.
Control Variables
Three variables including gender, age, and job rank were used as control variables based on previous research. Some studies have reported a positive relationship between grit and achievement-related variables, so we controlled for age in the analysis (Rojas et al., 2012; Christensen and Gerald, 2014). Duckworth et al. (2007) found that grit is stable over time, but recent research has shown that grit levels can increase with age (Cosgrove et al., 2016; Peña and Duckworth, 2018). Because higher positions in the organization, including leadership, can have a positive relationship with grit during difficult times, job rank was used as a control variable (Rego et al., 2021). Strong situations may compel leaders to take specific actions (Meyer et al., 2010), and it may cause leaders to demonstrate grit (Rego et al., 2021). In that sense, employees in higher positions may demonstrate a higher level of grit because the data was collected during a pandemic and then controlled in the analysis.
Analytic Procedure
For descriptive purposes, among the four variables, the Pearson's correlations were estimated, and the mean and standard deviation of each variable were calculated by age, gender, and job rank. We used Amos 21.0 to perform a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) before testing our hypotheses to assess the relevance of the research variables and check for common method bias. When the relationship between variables and factors is not theoretically established or logically organized, exploratory factor analysis is used to investigate the structure and reduce the number of variables to increase statistical efficiency (Hurley et al., 1997). CFA, on the other hand, assumes that specific measurement variables are necessarily affected by related (latent) variables and are unrelated to other factors based on a strong theoretical background or previous studies (Stapleton, 1997). Thus, CFA is similar to theory testing and has a theory-driven nature. As a result, we used CFA to test hypotheses and examine variables' structure.
To address the study objective, we conducted the moderation analysis using two potential moderators: SC and TL (Figure 1). Hayes (2012) refers to this as Model 1. According to Hayes et al. (2017), organizational behavior researchers used PROCESS macro in the empirical literature, discovered a trivial difference from structural equation modeling, and presented the moderation effect verification method. Therefore, the PROCESS macro was used in this study to test our hypotheses. Moreover, this study used bootstrapping to investigate the significance of the indirect effects using SPSS 21.0 macro model module to obtain the upper- and lower-class boundaries with 95% confidence level along with coefficients and standard errors (Islam et al., 2022).
Figure 1. Research model.
Results
Correlation and CFA
Table 1 displays descriptive statistics for the variables studied (i.e., mean, standard deviations, and correlation coefficients). Except for the relationship between job rank and other variables, all variables are positively related.
Table 1. Estimated correlations among grit, OP, SC, TL, and demographic information scores.
Then, we conducted CFA using AMOS 21.0 to check the validity of the variables in this study (Ahmad et al., 2021; Islam et al., 2022). Table 2 shows the CFA results. Overall, our research models show acceptable fit (CFI = 0.92, TLI = 0.91, SRMR = 0.05, RMSEA = 0.08; CFI = 0.93, TLI = 0.93, SRMR = 0.04, RMSEA = 0.07) compared to alternative models. The findings show that the measurements are discriminately valid and that common method bias is unlikely.
Table 2. Confirmatory factor analysis.
Hypothesis Test
Multiple linear regression was used to test hypothesis 1, which states that grit and OP are positively related. The first block included control variables (i.e., job position, gender, and age) and the second included grit. Grit is related to OP (β = 0.25, p = 0.001; Table 3), which supports hypothesis 1.
Table 3. A regression-based path analysis for the moderation model of supportive climate (SC) and transformational leadership (TL).
To test hypothesis 2, the moderating effect of a SC on grit and OP, the PROCESS macro, which was designed to evaluate multiple mediation and moderation models, was used (Choi et al., 2020). We used Model 1 (Process macro) and an additional 95% bias-corrected confidence interval with 5,000 bootstrapping procedures to investigate the moderation effects of SC and TL because 5,000 is sufficient for a robust analysis (Mundform et al., 2011). Table 3 and Figure 2 show that SC and TL strengthen the relationship between grit and OP (β = 0.74, p = 0.03; β = 0.98, p = 0.04), thus supporting hypotheses 2 and 3.
Figure 2. Path relationship for the moderation model. *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01.
As in Table 4, the indirect effects of SC and TL are suggested with the results (BootSE = 0.06, Boot 95% CI = [0.00, 0.21]; BootSE = 0.05, Boot 95% CI = [0.03, 0.24], respectively), which confirm the significance of moderation effects (Preacher and Hayes, 2004) because the results do not include any zero value between the upper- and lower-class boundaries (Byrne, 2010).
Table 4. Conditional indirect effects.
To investigate the interaction effect, we used simple slopes, as recommended by Aiken et al. (1991). If the interaction terms of the independent and moderating variables show a significant relationship, the graph of the interaction must be schematically drawn using the mean value and ±1 standard deviation, and a simple slope test must be performed (Aiken et al., 1991). A simple slope must be computed to clarify the form of the moderating effect (Jaccard et al., 1990). The positive relationship between grit and OP becomes stronger as SC and TL increase (see Figures 3, 4). In other words, SC and TL can help strengthen the bond between grit and OP.
Figure 3. Moderating effect of supportive climate on the relationship between grit and organizational performance.
Figure 4. Moderating effect of transformational leadership on the relationship between grit and organizational performance.
Discussion
Employees with a higher level of grit can perform their best in a variety of situations (Duckworth and Quinn, 2009). However, recent research presents inconsistent results in this regard (Hodge et al., 2018; Kannangara et al., 2018; Schmidt et al., 2018; Frontini et al., 2021; Lam and Zhou, 2022). This study confirmed that grit is associated with higher OP based on data analysis. We also found how two potential moderators (i.e., SC and TL) can strengthen the relationship between grit and OP; however, there has been limited research on the role of grit in performance (Credé et al., 2017; Khan et al., 2020). To be specific, when the organization consists of gritty employees, it is likely to show a higher performance level. Additionally, when the organization has a supportive organizational climate and is led by transformational leaders, the organization is expected to show a strong relationship between grit and performance.
Theoretical Contributions
This study makes a theoretical contribution by broadening the understanding of the benefits of grit. Research so far has focused on the micro-level impact of grit on things like career success, academic performance, and athletic performance (Credé et al., 2017; Arco-Tirado et al., 2019; Arifin et al., 2019; Lam and Zhou, 2019). This study, however, examined macro-level performance, results on which are limited in the management discipline. When an organization is made up of hardworking individuals, it can expect higher levels of firm-level performance. Thus, this research adds to management studies. Second, grit is an important trait, especially when an organization is facing a crisis (Kannangara et al., 2018; Rego et al., 2021). This paper suggests how an organization can survive a crisis by demonstrating the relationship between grit and performance when the focal company faces a major crisis such as the COVID-19 pandemic (Budhwar and Cumming, 2020; Nguyen et al., 2022). This study contributes to the literature by suggesting the requisite personal traits for tough times (Rego et al., 2021). Third, while the importance and effectiveness of grit have been studied, little attention has been paid to contingency and the expression of grit (Credé et al., 2017; Jordan et al., 2019; Choi et al., 2020; Khan et al., 2020). Therefore, this study adds to the literature by looking at how grit can be expressed based on organizational climate and leadership.
Practical Implications
The results of this study have several implications for organizational psychological practice in terms of personnel selection and development. First, the human resource department needs to be aware of employees' potential (Kannangara et al., 2018) and reflect on the types of human capital to be recruited in the organization as well as the traits that must be developed in them. Thus, grit can be an important factor for organizations for personnel selection and development (Jordan et al., 2019; Luthans et al., 2019). Second, as gritty employees contribute to the organization, the HR department can create a supportive climate through policies and practices to increase the employees' effectiveness (Collins and Smith, 2006; Kim et al., 2021). Furthermore, TL characteristics, such as idealized influence, intellectual stimulation, inspirational motivation, and individualized consideration (Bass and Avolio, 2000), should be demonstrated by leaders to enhance organizational performance (Bakker et al., 2022). HR managers must select and promote transformational leaders and develop them through training, coaching, and feedback programs (Bruch and Walter, 2007).
Limitations and Future Research
Despite the aforementioned contributions, this study has several theoretical, technical, and analytical limitations. First, we used TAT as an overarching theory to explain trait-performance relationships. A recent review study examined situational features such as functions, organizational culture, leadership, and personal motivation (Tett et al., 2021). Because this study looked at the moderating effects of organizational climate and leadership, future research could look into the impact of personal characteristics and functions on organizational performance. Second, because we gathered the data from a single source, the common method variance may have caused some bias when we calculated the associations between variables (Gardner III and Schermerhorn, 1992). A single-factor test may indicate whether a single factor explains all the covariances among the items, but it does not statistically adjust for method effects (Podsakoff et al., 2003). The normative effect of a single organizational culture could have reduced grit variance (Podsakoff et al., 2003). To generalize our findings to a larger population, future researchers should use multiple sources to demonstrate the given correlations after accounting for both random and fixed variables. Third, because all participants are nested within the same group (i.e., company A), they may exhibit similar attitudes and behaviors (Sacco et al., 2003). Given the data's hierarchically nested structure, future research should focus on multilevel analysis (Hofmann and Gavin, 1998) techniques such as hierarchical linear modeling (Kassinis and Vafeas, 2006) and multilevel structural equation modeling (Ryu and West, 2009). Finally, because the response rate appears to be low in the study, increasing the response rate is recommended for future studies to enhance the value of research findings (Baruch and Holtom, 2008).
Conclusion
This study emphasizes the importance of developing and managing hardworking employees, creating a supportive climate, and fostering transformational leadership—all of which can lead to higher organizational performance. Organizations should be able to create a supportive climate, select and develop transformational leaders based on individual grit, and thus improve their performance. This study adds to the literature on sustainable business in crisis by demonstrating the interaction effects of individual traits, organizational climate, and leadership.
Data Availability Statement
The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.
Ethics Statement
The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by Gachon University Institutional Review Board. The patients/participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.
Author Contributions
The author confirms being the sole contributor of this work and has approved it for publication.
Conflict of Interest
The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Publisher's Note
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
References
Ahmad, S., Islam, T., Sohal, A. S., Wolfram Cox, J., and Kaleem, A. (2021). Managing bullying in the workplace: a model of servant leadership, employee resilience and proactive personality. Personnel Rev. 50, 1613–1631. doi: 10.1108/PR-06-2020-0470
Aiken, L. S., West, S. G., and Reno, R. R. (1991). Multiple Regression: Testing and Interpreting Interactions. London, UK: SAGE.
Arco-Tirado, J. L., Bojica, A., Fernández-Martín, F., and Hoyle, R. H. (2019). Grit as predictor of entrepreneurship and self-employment in Spain. Front. Psychol. 10, 389. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00389
Arifin, M., Herri, A., Elfindri, H., and Puteri, H. E. (2019). Personality, grit and organizational citizenship behavior at vocational higher education: the mediating role of job involvement. J. Social Stud. Educ. Res. 12, 168–187. Available online at: https://www.learntechlib.org/p/216566/ (accessed June 23, 2022).
Atkinson, P., and Mackenzie, R. (2015). Without leadership there is no change. Manag. Serv. 59, 42–47. Available online at: http://www.philipatkinson.com/uploads/7/1/5/0/7150143/without_leadership_there_is_no_change_article.pdf
Bakker, A. B., Hetland, J., Olsen, O. K., and Espevik, R. (2022). Daily transformational leadership: a source of inspiration for follower performance? Eur. Manag. J. doi: 10.1016/j.emj.2022.04.004
Baruch, Y., and Holtom, B. C. (2008). Survey response rate levels and trends in organizational research. Hum. Relat. 61, 1139–1160. doi: 10.1177/0018726708094863
Bass, B. M. (1990). From transactional to transformational leadership: learning to share the vision. Organ. Dyn. 18, 19–31. doi: 10.1016/0090-2616(90)90061-s
Bass, B. M., and Avolio, B. J. (1993). “Transformational leadership: a response to critiques,” in Leadership Theory and Research: Perspectives and Directions, eds. M. M. Chemers and R. Ayman (New York: Academic Press), 49–80.
Bass, B. M., and Avolio, B. J. (2000). Manual for the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Form 5X). Redwood City: Mindgarden.
Batres, I. (2011). The Relationship of Grit, Subjective Happiness and Meaning in Life on Alternative Education Students' GPA and Attendance. La Verne: University of La Verne.
Borucki, C. C., and Burke, M. J. (1999). An examination of service-related antecedents to retail store performance. J. Organ. Behav. 20, 943–962. doi: 10.1002/(sici)1099-1379(199911)20:6<943::aid-job976>3.0.co;2-9
Bowen, D. E., and Ostroff, C. (2004). Understanding HRM-firm performance linkages: the role of the “strength” of the HRM system. Acad. Manag. Rev. 29, 203–221. doi: 10.5465/amr.2004.12736076
Bruch, H., and Walter, F. (2007). Leadership in context: investigating hierarchical impacts on transformational leadership. Leadersh. Organ. Dev. J. 28, 710–726. doi: 10.1108/01437730710835452
Budhwar, P., and Cumming, D. (2020). New directions in management research and communication: lessons from the COVID-19 pandemic. Br. J. Manag. 31, 441–443. doi: 10.1111/1467-8551.12426
Byrne, B. M. (2010). Structural Equation Modeling With AMOS: Basic Concepts, Applications, and Programming (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge. doi: 10.4324/9780203805534
Caspi, A., and Moffitt, T. E. (1993). When do individual differences matter? A paradoxical theory of personality coherence. Psychol. Inquiry 4, 247–271. doi: 10.1207/s15327965pli0404_1
Caza, A., and Posner, B. Z. (2021). Mixed associations between grit and transformational leadership behavior. J. Leader. Stud. 15, 6–20. doi: 10.1002/jls.21781
Charoensukmongkol, P., and Puyod, J. V. (2021). Influence of transformational leadership on role ambiguity and work–life balance of Filipino University employees during COVID-19: does employee involvement matter? Int. J. Leadersh. Educ. doi: 10.1080/13603124.2021.1882701
Choi, J., Sohn, Y. W., and Lee, S. (2020). The effect of corporate social responsibility on employees' organizational citizenship behavior: a moderated mediation model of grit and meaning orientation. Sustainability 12, 5411. doi: 10.3390/su12135411
Christensen, R., and Gerald, K. (2014). Comparative measures of grit, tenacity, and perseverance. Int. J. Learn. Teach. Educ. Res. 8, 16–30. Available online at: http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter/article/view/151/61
Clark, R. S., and Clark, V. L. (2019). Grit within the context of career success: a mixed methods study. Int. J. Appl. Positive Psychol. 4, 91–111. doi: 10.1007/s41042-019-00020-9
Cole, M. S., Bruch, H., and Shamir, B. (2009). Social distance as a moderator of the effects of transformational leadership: both neutralizer and enhancer. Hum. Relat. 62, 1697–1733. doi: 10.1177/0018726709346377
Collins, C. J., and Smith, K. G. (2006). Knowledge exchange and combination: the role of human resource practices in the performance of high-technology firms. Acad. Manag. J. 49, 544–560. doi: 10.5465/amj.2006.21794671
Cosgrove, J. M., Brown, K. P., Beddoes, Z. E., Bartholomew, J. B., and Castelli, D. M. (2016). Physical education and student grit. Res. Q. Exerc. Sport 87, A64. Available online at: https://www.proquest.com/docview/1817494369?pq-origsite=gscholar&fromopenview=true
Credé, M., Tynan, M. C., and Harms, P. D. (2017). Much ado about grit: a meta-analytic synthesis of the grit literature. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 113, 492–511. doi: 10.1037/pspp0000102
Day, D. V., and Silverman, S. B. (1989). Personality and job performance: evidence of incremental validity. Pers. Psychol. 42, 25–36. doi: 10.1111/j.1744-6570.1989.tb01549.x
Duckworth, A. L., Peterson, C., Matthews, M. D., and Kelly, D. R. (2007). Grit: perseverance and passion for long-term goals. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 92, 1087–1101. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.92.6.1087
Duckworth, A. L., and Quinn, P. D. (2009). Development and validation of the short grit scale (Grit-S). J. Pers. Assess. 91, 166–174. doi: 10.1080/00223890802634290
Epitropaki, O., and Martin, R. (2005). From ideal to real: a longitudinal study of the role of implicit leadership theories on leader-member exchanges and employee outcomes. J. Appl. Psychol. 90, 659–676. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.90.4.659
Eskreis-Winkler, L., Shulman, E. P., and Duckworth, A. L. (2014). Survivor mission: do those who survive have a drive to thrive at work? J. Posit. Psychol. 9, 209–218. doi: 10.1080/17439760.2014.888579
Ferguson, N. M., Laydon, D., Nedjati-Gilani, G., Imai, N., Ainslie, K., Baguelin, M., et al. (2020). Impact of Non-Pharmaceutical Interventions (NPIs) to Reduce COVID-19 Mortality and Healthcare Demand. Working paper. London: Imperial College Press.
Fernández-Aráoz, C. (2014). 21st-century talent spotting. Harv. Bus. Rev. 92, 46–54. Available online at: https://hbr.org/2014/06/21st-century-talent-spotting
Ferris, G. R., Arthur, M. M., Berkson, H. M., Kaplan, D. M., Harrell-Cook, G., and Frink, D. D. (1998). Toward a social context theory of the human resource management—organization effectiveness relationship. Hum. Resour. Manag. Rev. 8, 235–264. doi: 10.1016/s1053-4822(98)90004-3
Fleeson, W., and Jayawickreme, E. (2015). Whole trait theory. J. Res. Pers. 56, 82–92. doi: 10.1016/j.jrp.2014.10.009
Frontini, R., Sigmundsson, H., Antunes, R., Silva, A. F., Lima, R., and Clemente, F. M. (2021). Passion, grit, and mindset in undergraduate sport sciences students. New Ideas Psychol. 62, 100870. doi: 10.1016/j.newideapsych.2021.100870
Gardner III W. L., and Schermerhorn, J. R. Jr. (1992). “Strategic leadership and the management of supportive work environments,” in Strategic Leadership: A Multiorganizational-Level Perspective, eds R. L. Phillips and J. G. Hunt (Westport, CT: Quorum), 99–118.
Gardner, W. L., and Schermerhorn, J. R. (2004). Unleashing individual potential: performance. Organ. Dyn. 33, 270–281. doi: 10.1016/j.orgdyn.2004.06.004
Gilson, L. L., and Davis, W. D. (2019). Managing in an age of complexity and uncertainty. Group Organ. Manag. 44, 243–246. doi: 10.1177/1059601119836545
Gopinath, G. (2020). The Great Lockdown: Worst Economic Downturn Since the Great Depression. Available online at: https://blogs.imf.org/2020/04/14/the-great-lockdown-worst-economic-downturn-since-the-great-depression/
Hayes, A. F. (2012). PROCESS: A Versatile Computational Tool for Observed Variable Mediation, Moderation, and Conditional Process Modeling. Available online at: http://www.afhayes.com/public/process2012.pdf
Hayes, A. F., Montoya, A. K., and Rockwood, N. J. (2017). The analysis of mechanisms and their contingencies: process versus structural equation modeling. Aust. Market. J. 25, 76–81. doi: 10.1016/j.ausmj.2017.02.001
Heckman, J. J., and Masterov, D. V. (2007). The productivity argument for investing in young children. Rev. Agric. Econ. 29, 446–493. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9353.2007.00359.x
Hodge, B., Wright, B., and Bennett, P. (2018). The role of grit in determining engagement and academic outcomes for university students. Res. High. Educ. 59, 448–460. doi: 10.1007/s11162-017-9474-y
Hofmann, D. A., and Gavin, M. B. (1998). Centering decisions in hierarchical linear models: implications for research in organizations. J. Manage. 24, 623–641. doi: 10.1177/014920639802400504
Hurley, A. E., Scandura, T. A., Schriesheim, C. A., Brannick, M. T., Seers, A., Vandenberg, R. J., and Williams, L. J. (1997). Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis: guidelines, issues, and alternatives. J. Organ. Behav. 18, 667–683. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1099-1379(199711)18:6<667::AID-JOB874>3.0.CO;2-T
Islam, T., Ahmad, S., and Ahmed, I. (2022). Linking environment specific servant leadership with organizational environmental citizenship behavior: the roles of CSR and attachment anxiety. Rev. Manag. Sci. doi: 10.1007/s11846-022-00547-3
Jaccard, J., Wan, C. K., and Turrisi, R. (1990). The detection and interpretation of interaction effects between continuous variables in multiple regression. Multivariate Behav. Res. 25, 467–478. doi: 10.1207/s15327906mbr2504_4
James, L. R., Choi, C. C., Ko, C. E., McNeil, P. K., Minton, M. K., Wright, M. A., and Kim, K. I. (2008). Organizational and psychological climate: a review of theory and research. Eur. J. Work Organ. Psychol. 17, 5–32. doi: 10.1080/13594320701662550
Jordan, S. L., Ferris, G. R., Hochwarter, W. A., and Wright, T. A. (2019). Toward a work motivation conceptualization of grit in organizations. Group Organ. Manag. 44, 320–360. doi: 10.1177/1059601119834093
Kannangara, C. S., Allen, R. E., Waugh, G., Nahar, N., Khan, S. Z. N., Rogerson, S., and Carson, J. (2018). All that glitters is not grit: three studies of grit in university students. Front. Psychol. 9, 1539. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01539
Kassinis, G., and Vafeas, N. (2006). Stakeholder pressures and environmental performance. Acad. Manag. J. 49, 145–159. doi: 10.5465/amj.2006.20785799
Khalili, A. (2016). Linking transformational leadership, creativity, innovation, and innovation-supportive climate. Manag. Decis. 54, 2277–2293. doi: 10.1108/md-03-2016-0196
Khan, R., Neveu, J.-P., and Murtaza, G. (2020). Is grit hurting you? The dark side of psychological resources in goal pursuit. Appl. Psychol. 70, 1323–1344. doi: 10.1111/apps.12279
Kim, K. Y., Atwater, L., Jolly, P., Ugwuanyi, I., Baik, K., and Yu, J. (2021). Supportive leadership and job performance: contributions of supportive climate, team-member exchange (TMX), and group-mean TMX. J. Bus. Res. 134, 661–674. doi: 10.1016/j.jbusres.2021.06.011
Kloutsiniotis, P. V., Mihail, D. M., Mylonas, N., and Pateli, A. (2022). Transformational Leadership, HRM practices and burnout during the COVID-19 pandemic: the role of personal stress, anxiety, and workplace loneliness. Int. J. Hosp. Manag. 102, 103177. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhm.2022.103177
Kouzes, J., and Posner, B. (1996). The Leadership Challenge Workbook. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Lam, K. K. L., and Zhou, M. (2019). Examining the relationship between grit and academic achievement within K-12 and higher education: a systematic review. Psychol. Sch. 56, 1654–1686. doi: 10.1002/pits.22302
Lam, K. K. L., and Zhou, M. (2022). Grit and academic achievement: a comparative cross-cultural meta-analysis. J. Educ. Psychol. 114, 557–621. doi: 10.1037/edu0000699
Lee, J. H., and Stankov, L. (2018). Non-cognitive predictors of academic achievement: evidence from TIMSS and PISA. Learn. Individ. Differ. 65, 50–64. doi: 10.1016/j.lindif.2018.05.009
Lievens, F., Chasteen, C. S., Day, E. A., and Christiansen, N. D. (2006). Large-scale investigation of the role of trait activation theory for understanding assessment center convergent and discriminant validity. J. Appl. Psychol. 91, 247–258. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.91.2.247
Littman-Ovadia, H., and Lavy, S. (2016). Going the extra mile: perseverance as a key character strength at work. J. Career Assess. 24, 240–252. doi: 10.1177/1069072715580322
Luria, G., Kahana, A., Goldenberg, J., and Noam, Y. (2019). Contextual moderators for leadership potential based on trait activation theory. J. Organ. Behav. 40, 899–911. doi: 10.1002/job.2373
Luthans, F., Norman, S. M., Avolio, B. J., and Avey, J. B. (2008). The mediating role of psychological capital in the supportive organizational climate—employee performance relationship. J. Organ. Behav. 29, 219–238. doi: 10.1002/job.507
Luthans, K. W., Luthans, B. C., and Chaffin, T. D. (2019). Refining grit in academic performance: the mediational role of psychological capital. J. Manag. Educ. 43, 35–61. doi: 10.1177/1052562918804282
Madera, J. M., and Smith, D. B. (2009). The effects of leader negative emotions on evaluations of leadership in a crisis situation: the role of anger and sadness. Leadersh. Q. 20, 103–114. doi: 10.1016/j.leaqua.2009.01.007
Matthews, G. (2018). Cognitive-adaptive trait theory: a shift in perspective on personality. J. Pers. 86, 69–82. doi: 10.1111/jopy.12319
McCombs, K., and Williams, E. (2021). The resilient effects of transformational leadership on well-being: examining the moderating effects of anxiety during the COVID-19 crisis. Leadersh. Organ. Dev. J. 42, 1254–1266. doi: 10.1108/LODJ-02-2021-0092
McKay, P. F., and Avery, D. R. (2006). What has race got to do with it? Unraveling the role of racioethnicity in job seekers' reactions to site visits. Personnel Psychol. 59, 395–429. doi: 10.1111/j.1744-6570.2006.00079.x
Meyer, R. D., Dalal, R. S., and Hermida, R. (2010). A review and synthesis of situational strength in the organizational sciences. J. Manage. 36, 121–140. doi: 10.1177/0149206309349309
Mischel, W. (1973). Toward a cognitive social learning reconceptualization of personality. Psychol. Rev. 80, 252–283. doi: 10.1037/h0035002
Mitroff, I. I., Pauchant, T. C., and Shrivastava, P. (1988). The structure of man-made organizational crises: conceptual and empirical issues in the development of a general theory of crisis management. Technol. Forecast. Soc. Change 33, 83–107. doi: 10.1016/0040-1625(88)90075-3
Mundform, D. J., Schaffer, J., Kim, M. J., Shaw, D., Thongteeraparp, A., and Supawan, P. (2011). Number of replications required in Monte Carlo simulation studies: a synthesis of four studies. J. Modern Appl. Stat. Methods 10:1304222580. doi: 10.22237/jmasm/1304222580
Nguyen, T. M., Malik, A., and Budhwar, P. (2022). Knowledge hiding in organizational crisis: the moderating role of leadership. J. Bus. Res. 139, 161–172. doi: 10.1016/j.jbusres.2021.09.026
O'Brien, K. E., Henson, J. A., and Voss, B. E. (2021). A trait-interactionist approach to understanding the role of stressors in the personality-CWB relationship. J. Occup. Health Psychol. 26, 350–360. doi: 10.1037/ocp0000274
Park, S., Johnson, K. R., and Chaudhuri, S. (2019). Promoting work engagement in the hotel sector: review and analysis. Manag. Res. Rev. 42, 971–990. doi: 10.1108/MRR-03-2018-0126
Pawar, B. S., and Eastman, K. K. (1997). The nature and implications of contextual influences on transformational leadership: a conceptual examination. Acad. Manag. Rev. 22, 80–109. doi: 10.5465/amr.1997.9707180260
Pearson, C. M., and Clair, J. A. (1998). Reframing crisis management. Acad. Manag. Rev. 23, 59–76. doi: 10.5465/amr.1998.192960
Peña, P. A., and Duckworth, A. L. (2018). The effects of relative and absolute age in the measurement of grit from 9th to 12th grade. Econ. Educ. Rev. 66, 183–190. doi: 10.1016/j.econedurev.2018.08.009
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J. Y., and Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: a critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. J. Appl. Psychol. 88, 879–903. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.879
Popli, S., and Rizvi, I. A. (2017). Leadership style and service orientation: the catalytic role of employee engagement. J. Serv. Theory Pract. 27, 292–310. doi: 10.1108/JSTP-07-2015-0151
Preacher, K. J., and Hayes, A. F. (2004). SPSS and SAS procedures for estimating indirect effects in simple mediation models. Behav. Res. Methods Instrum. Comput. 36, 717–731. doi: 10.3758/bf03206553
Rego, A., Cavazotte, F., Cunha, M. P. E., Valverde, C., Meyer, M., and Giustiniano, L. (2021). Gritty leaders promoting employees' thriving at work. J. Manage. 47, 1155–1184. doi: 10.1177/0149206320904765
Reichers, A., and Schneider, B. (1990). “Climate and culture: an evolution of constructs,” in Organizational Climate and Culture, eds B. Schneider (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass), 5–39.
Renn, R. W., and Prien, K. O. (1995). Employee responses to performance feedback from the task: a field study of the moderating effects of global self-esteem. Group Organ. Manag. 20, 337–354. doi: 10.1177/1059601195203006
Rodríguez-Pinto, J., Carbonell, P., and Rodríguez-Escudero, A. I. (2011). Speed or quality? How the order of market entry influences the relationship between market orientation and new product performance. Int. J. Res. Market. 28, 145–154. doi: 10.1016/j.ijresmar.2011.02.001
Rogg, K. L., Schmidt, D. B., Shull, C., and Schmitt, N. (2001). Human resource practices, organizational climate, and customer satisfaction. J. Manage. 27, 431–449. doi: 10.1177/014920630102700403
Rojas, J. P. R., Joseph, A., Usher, E. L., and Toland, M. D. (2012). Psychometric Properties of the Academic Grit Scale. Lexington: University of Kentucky.
Ryu, E., and West, S. G. (2009). Level-specific evaluation of model fit in multilevel structural equation modeling. Struct. Equ. Model. 16, 583–601. doi: 10.1080/10705510903203466
Sacco, J. M., Scheu, C. R., Ryan, A. M., and Schmitt, N. (2003). An investigation of race and sex similarity effects in interviews: a multilevel approach to relational demography. J. Appl. Psychol. 88, 852–865. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.852
Santoso, N. R., Dewi, E. A. S. K., Arviani, H., and Achmad, Z. A. (2021). Public relations professionals' communication strategies in responding the COVID-19 pandemic based on gender. Plaridel 18, 295–316. doi: 10.52518/2021.18.1-08saderac
Santoso, N. R., Sulistyaningtyas, I. D., and Pratama, B. P. (2022). Transformational leadership during the COVID-19 pandemic: strengthening employee engagement through internal communication. J. Commun. Inquiry. doi: 10.1177/01968599221095182
Schermerhorn, J. R. Jr., Gardner, W. L., and Martin, T. N. (1990). Management dialogues: turning on the marginal performer. Organ. Dyn. 18, 47–59. doi: 10.1016/0090-2616(90)90056-u
Schmidt, F. T. C., Nagy, G., Fleckenstein, J., Möller, J., and Retelsdorf, J. (2018). Same Same, but different? Relations between facets of conscientiousness and grit. Eur. J. Personal. 32, 705–720. doi: 10.1002/per.2171
Schneider, B. (1987). The people make the place. Pers. Psychol. 40, 437–453. doi: 10.1111/j.1744-6570.1987.tb00609.x
Schneider, B., Ehrhart, M. G., and Macey, W. A. (2011). “Perspectives on organizational climate and culture,” in APA Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Vol. 1, eds S. Zedeck (Washington, DC: American Psychological Association), 373–414. doi: 10.1037/12169-012
Schneider, B., White, S. S., and Paul, M. C. (1998). Linking service climate and customer perceptions of service quality: test of a causal model. J. Appl. Psychol. 83, 150–163. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.83.2.150
Shamir, B., House, R. J., and Arthur, M. B. (1993). The motivational effects of charismatic leadership: a self-concept based theory. Organ. Sci. 4, 577–594. doi: 10.1287/orsc.4.4.577
Sinclair, E. (2017). Grit Literature: Developing a Grit-Building Curriculum to Increase Task Perseverance. Doctoral Dissertation. Indiana State University.
Singh, K. (2004). Impact of HR practices on perceived firm performance in India. Asia Pacific J Human Resour. 42, 301–317. doi: 10.1177/1038411104048170
Slåtten, T., Lien, G., Evenstad, S. B. N., and Onshus, T. (2021). Supportive study climate and academic performance among university students: the role of psychological capital, positive emotions and study engagement. Int. J. Qual. Serv. Sci. 13, 585–600. doi: 10.1108/IJQSS-03-2020-0045
Stapleton, C. D. (1997). “Basic concepts and procedures of confirmatory factor analysis,” in Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Southwest Educational Research Association, Austin, TX, January 23–25.
Tett, R. P., and Guterman, H. A. (2000). Situation trait relevance, trait expression, and cross-situational consistency: testing a principle of trait activation. J. Res. Pers. 34, 397–423. doi: 10.1006/jrpe.2000.2292
Tett, R. P., Toich, M. J., and Ozkum, S. B. (2021). Trait activation theory: a review of the literature and applications to five lines of personality dynamics research. Annu. Rev. Organ. Psychol. Organ. Behav. 8, 199–233. doi: 10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420-062228
Tripathi, S., and Tripathi, D. (2022). Organizational climate and organizational politics: understanding the role of employees using parallel mediation. Evidence-based HRM. doi: 10.1108/EBHRM-08-2020-0107
Washington, A. S. (2016). The Relationship Between Student Grit and Student Achievement. Maldwin City: Baker University.
Westphal, M., Bonanno, G. A., and Bartone, P. (2008). “Resilience and personality,” in Biobehavioral Resilience to Stress, eds B. Lukey and V. Tepe (New York, NY: Francis and Taylor), 219–258.
Keywords: grit, supportive climate, transformational leadership, organizational performance, personal trait in crisis
Citation: Lee J (2022) The Role of Grit in Organizational Performance During a Pandemic. Front. Psychol. 13:929517. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.929517
Received: 26 April 2022; Accepted: 20 June 2022;
Published: 07 July 2022.
Edited by:
Fu-Sheng Tsai, Cheng Shiu University, TaiwanReviewed by:
Talat Islam, University of the Punjab, PakistanPouya Zargar, Girne American University, Cyprus
Copyright © 2022 Lee. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
*Correspondence: Joonghak Lee, joonghaklee@gachon.ac.kr