Workforce Management during the Time of COVID-19—Lessons Learned and Future Measures

Abstract

Industries worldwide have faced continuous burdens since the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, while adjusting to rapidly changing rules and regulations. Industries need to be prepared to remain operational and productive in the face of current and emergent pathogens. While several businesses could remain functional through remote work, critical industries faced closings, worker shortages, and loss of productivity. Pharmaceutical industries were blessed with an increase in the stock market and creation of new jobs, but faced serious severe challenges due to shortage of medicines and drugs. Critical infrastructures such as healthcare, food and agriculture, manufacturing, construction, transportation, retail, waterworks, and waste management took a significant hit during the pandemic, and are still suffering from worker shortages to function optimally. Above all odds, companies were able to maintain the necessities by implementing strict safety protocols such as thorough and repeated cleaning, use of hand sanitizer/disinfectants, wearing face masks and personal protective equipment, and maintaining social distancing. This article addresses how COVID-19 disrupted normal operations on a large scale, and how essential businesses have learned to assess the impact, handle situations effectively, and become resilient for future crises. Best practices were tailored to each industry sector to prepare for and address the pandemic.

1. Introduction

COVID-19 affected our everyday life and slowed the global economy. Thousands of people suffered from the spread of the SARS-CoV-2 virus by either being sick, hospitalized, or passing away [1]. The most common symptoms of COVID-19 are fever, cold, cough, muscle pain, and respiratory problems, ultimately leading to pneumonia [2]. The onset of this new viral disease in early 2020, without vaccine availability, affected people for the first time, and increased the risk of spreading the disease. Thus, to minimize the risk, the emphasis was on taking extensive precautions such as practicing good hygiene, regular hand washing, social distancing, wearing masks, and so on [3,4]. By January 2021, COVID-19 had caused about 2.5 million deaths worldwide. This virus started spreading exponentially regionwide, and nations enforced lockdowns. Strict quarantine helped to control the spread of highly infectious diseases. Identifying the disease at an early stage was vital to prevent the spread of the virus because it very rapidly spreads from person to person. Since 2020, vaccine development was expedited via collaboration in the global pharmaceutical industry and between governments. The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) gave emergency use authorization to two mRNA COVID-19 vaccines, the Pfizer-BioNTech and the Moderna COVID-19 vaccines, in 2020 to vaccinate the nation [5].

The pandemic has disrupted the global economy, and social distancing considerations and quarantines have halted most activities [6]. With the chances of spreading the virus, it became apparent the impacts would be significant in many organizational sectors, including food and agriculture, manufacturing, construction, retail, energy, financial, healthcare, transportation, waterworks, and waste management. Numerous uncertainties were associated with a new strain, anxieties increased as treatments were still unknown, rapid spreading of infections, lack of availability of proper PPE, medical equipment and supplies, challenges following social distancing and hygiene rules, lack of adequate sanitation, etc. [1,7]. Challenges faced during COVID-19 by many industries include sudden switching to remote work, economic loss, production slow down, and a job loss of employees [8].

The US Government and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) listed the sectors considered essential during COVID-19. The list of essential businesses included healthcare/public health, food and agriculture, water and wastewater, transportation and logistics, and critical manufacturing, which we have included in our review [1]. We have chosen these sectors for our review as they were essential in ensuring the continuity of critical functions in the United States and worldwide during COVID-19. We have added the pharmaceutical, retail, and construction sectors for review as these sectors were declared by the International Labor Organization as essential, and also played a critical role during COVID-19. Pharmaceutical sectors played a vital role, globally supporting essential medical services during the pandemic and providing access to medications, vaccines, and other essential supplies [2]. The International Labour Organization (ILO) provided brief reports on sectors that were essential and severely impacted by COVID-19, including the construction and retail industry [3].

Construction projects must be physically secured, ensuring building structural integrity, safety, and health hazards are abated to provide safe suspension of the project. Any emergency repairs cannot be performed remotely [9]. Critical challenges manufacturing industries faced were problems with the supply chain, e.g., delayed deliveries slowing production, switching to a more competitive online market, shifting focus from offline to online in a short period, and internal problems, including lack of personnel and resources [10]. Globally, most industrial sectors have been rendered vulnerable by the COVID-19 crisis. Wholesale and retail trade, transportation and storage, finance and insurance, and food and nutrition industries have been affected. The first scenario of a severe pandemic in many industries was marked by downturns in consumer demand, industrial production, and economic downfall. The outbreak was contained mainly by the end of May 2020, with the economy slowly showing signs of industry and economic rebound from the second quarter of 2020–2021 Fiscal year, and almost full recovery for many industries by the first quarter of 2021–2022 Fiscal year. The epidemic outbreak has increased the demand for medical equipment, medical accessories, and daily essentials that provide for healthcare workers’ safety. The COVID-19 outbreak eventually seriously impacted the delivery of certain everyday needs. Supply chain for essential products was severely disrupted during the COVID-19 pandemic [11].

The discussion that follows focuses on the challenges faced and best practices learned by essential workforce sectors during the COVID-19 pandemic. Several essential sectors such as pharmaceutical, food and agriculture, manufacturing, construction, healthcare, transportation, retail, waterworks, and waste management are included, with detailed information on challenges faced by these individual sectors worldwide and the best practices learned, which could help increase preparedness for and recovery during a pandemic in future. The review of the literature will emphasize the importance of developing proactive best practices to improve future pandemic response. Research methods will describe how different essential sectors were chosen. Lastly, the researchers sought to address gaps in the pandemic response of each sector; therefore, study results will provide insight into how challenges can be assessed, and assist with developing best practices within each sector. These results will lead to a better understanding of the problems each of these sectors encountered during the pandemic, and help to generate safe protocols to follow in any similar future crises.

2. Literature Review

There has been limited research on best practices and lessons learned from the COVID-19 pandemic as it was relatively recent, beginning in March 2020. The World Health Organization (WHO) has yet to declare an end to the pandemic as of September 2022; they announced “The end may be in sight” [4]. The relevant research pertaining to genome sequencing, food supply, and manufacturing supply chain disruptions is here discussed.

A study published in 2022 by Porter et al. focused on new rules for genomics informed by COVID-19 responses, and investigated the lessons learned from the first wave of the Omicron variant in Australia. The combination of the fast replication of the Omicron variant and the testing shortage impacted the available data for the study. These shortages and restriction loosening were found to affect the increase in cases. Australia was among the top ten countries in terms of newly reported COVID-19 cases and deaths between the dates of August and September 2022 [5]. Researchers from this study stated that the lift in restrictions before identifying the genome sequencing traits of the emergent variant contributed to the increase in new cases. The recommendations were to screen both focused sampling relating to confirmed cases, and exposure history (travel, vaccination, and type of work), and also representative sampling, which was used to study the genomic sequencing of the emergent variant [5]. The study reported that availability of testing supplies would have better supported these recommendations and restrictions. Ccloser surveillance of the virulence transmission and cases is considered as the best practice [5].

Most of the manufacturing and stockpiling prior to the Omicron variant focused more on the vaccine and PPE chain of supplies. A study published by Russo R. et al. in 2022 focused on lessons learned from the retail and food supply chain [6]. The study investigated the researcher-selected neighborhoods in New York City, one of the cities with the most significant burden of cases at the beginning of the pandemic. The unexpected food supply impacts disrupted small to moderate business retail entities and the communities. The study concluded that the lessons learned from the retail and food shortages are the need for improved data collection and communication efforts to better present such data to the public and state the expected burdens of these small businesses. This focus could allow for increased funding to support the community during times of increased viral burden and allow for increased funding to support these systems [6].

Manufacturing design and versatility should be a focus to prevent bottlenecks in future pandemics. The article “Will You Be Ready for the Next Disruption?” states that advanced manufacturing, which advances domestically in addition to internationally, is needed to prepare for a similar pandemic [7]. Manufacturing facilities had to respond with little notice, undergoing a shift from their standard manufacturing products to manufacturing supplies needed to meet the tremendous demand during the pandemic. Those supply chains that focused more on international sources before the pandemic were not prepared to cover the extenuating circumstances demanding domestic production of pandemic supplies [7]. To reduce the dependence on the global supply system, advanced manufacturing technologies along with robust domestic supply chains are required [7]. The majority of the literature reviewed and published focuses on public health challenges and healthcare. Our review of the current literature notes the research gaps in small to large business sectors that still need to be addressed to assist with the development plan for addressing the lessons learned from the COVID-19 pandemic. The knowledge acquired from these plans anticipates challenges leading to best practices being utilized in future pandemics.

3. Materials and Methods

We followed a step-by-step search strategy by conducting a preliminary search through multiple databases, such as Google Scholar and PubMed, to identify the appropriate keywords in August–September 2022. Next, we adopted a search strategy including electronic databases of the following sources: PubMed, Google Scholar, Science Direct, Scopus, and the Web of Science. The results were reviewed using Endnote 20 software, Clarivate Plc., Philadelphia, PA, USA. We used the following keywords for our literature search: “Industrial workers”, “essential business”, “challenges”, “COVID-19”, “spread of infection”, “business closure”, “resilient”, and “best practices”. We searched government documents/articles and publications from nonprofit organizations by including Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), the Center for Construction Research and Training (CPWR), and the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), World Health Organization (WHO), Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), and International Labour Organization (ILO) websites. We also used Google to search for any news articles and online articles available on the topic. Then we searched articles on specific sectors on the sites mentioned above using the words “pharmaceutical”, “food and agriculture”, “manufacturing”, “construction”, “healthcare”, “transportation”, “retail”, “waterworks”, and “waste management”, and looked for article titles and abstracts to narrow down articles that included information on challenges these sectors faced during COVID-19 and best practices learned.

Information was gathered from the sites, and a comprehensive review was written on problems associated with essential industrial work encountered before and during COVID-19 and safe practices to continue work. Publications were separately checked by reading the titles and abstracts, removing irrelevant studies according to the inclusion and exclusion criteria, and maximizing our efforts to collect more relevant studies. We chose only papers published in English, checked their eligibility, and eliminated non-English papers. The literature search was conducted for articles published between March 2020 to September 2022.

Inclusion criteria:

• Articles related to COVID-19 published between March 2020 and September 2022.
• Articles related to challenges faced during COVID-19 by businesses and industries, essential businesses and services that supported continuity of critical functions during the pandemic, best practices learned to prepare for and cope with future crisis, rules and regulations to control spread of infection, sustainability and resiliency of industrial and business sectors during COVID-19.
• All reports included original studies, reviews, editorials, viewpoints, guidelines, news articles, online articles, and government documents.

Exclusion criteria:

• Articles irrelevant to COVID-19.
• Articles written in other languages than English.
• Preprints.
• Unavailable full texts.

For each sector, we analyzed several articles based on relevant information. Listed below are several articles chosen for each sector that included information on challenges faced and best practices learned during COVID-19.

• Articles included: 85.
• Government articles/documents: 13 (CDC, FEMA, FDA, EPA, WHO, ILO, OECD).
• News and electronic articles: 28 (International, The News; Frontier Economics, CNN Business, Wall street journal, USA Today).
• Pharmaceutical: 5 (PubMed, Google Scholar, Science Direct, Scopus, and the Web of Science).
• Food and agriculture: 17 (PubMed, Google Scholar, Science Direct, Scopus, Web of Science, CDC, OECD.org, FDA).
• Manufacturing: 8 (PubMed, Google Scholar, Science Direct, Scopus, Web of Science, online articles).
• Construction: 8 (PubMed, Google Scholar, CPWR, PubMed, AIHA, CDC, online articles).
• Healthcare: 8 (PubMed, Google Scholar, Science Direct, Scopus, Web of Science, online articles).
• Transportation: 5 (PubMed, Google Scholar, Science Direct, Scopus, FEMA, online articles).
• Retail: 6 (PubMed, Google Scholar, Science Direct, Scopus, online articles).
• Waterworks: 7 (PubMed, Google Scholar, Science Direct, Scopus, EPA, CDC, Frontier Economics).
• Waste management: 5 (PubMed, Google Scholar, Science Direct, Scopus, and the Web of Science).

4. Results

The findings from the literature show that the challenges different organizations and industrial sectors faced as a result of COVID-19 have some similarities, but also vary in many ways. Industries faced severe challenges with the onset of COVID-19 globally. Lockdown and social distancing guidelines lead to many changes, such as business closure, remote work, worker shortage, labor loss, economic loss, and production loss [8]. Many industrial workers in manufacturing and construction, the food industry, agriculture, and retail come from low economic and vulnerable backgrounds [9,10]. Their vulnerability in pre-pandemic situations was further escalated by the loss of jobs and uncertainty of rehiring during the pandemic, causing mental stress and suffering [11,12]. The literature search was conducted to find information on challenges that different organizational and industrial sectors faced during the pandemic, and safe work practices to combat those challenges for each industrial sector. The report includes best practices at work following social distancing, proper hygiene and handwashing rules, effective use of respirators and other personal protective equipment, and safe guidance from governmental and other organizations. The information is also tailored to the unique challenges each industrial and organizational sectors faced during the pandemic, and includes the best practices to become resilient in future to similar crises (

Table 1. Challenges faced by different industrial sectors during COVID-19 and best practices learned.

Industrial Sector	Challenges	Best Practices
Pharmaceutical	Medicine shortages, shortage in chronic medications due to panic buying Shortage in medical devices and PPE Time constraints for creating vaccines and novel drugs for COVID-19	Collaborative inputs and efforts from all interdependent stakeholders Transparent preparedness and contingency plans for disruptions Active management, transparent supply chain process, and timely communications during the crisis
Food and Agriculture	Restaurants and bars closed down due to the lockdown Supply chain disruptions, shortages due to panic buying, shorter supply of goods due to challenges in shipping and import Reduction in crop and animal production, reduction in labor, farmers discarding their stock due to no demand, loss of jobs, and unstable economy. Meat and poultry workers work close together in facilities and live in shared accommodations, making social distancing difficult	Proper cleaning and prevention of cross-contamination is critical to controlling foodborne illnesses Good hygiene practices, handwashing, and good housekeeping minimize the risk of exposure to any foodborne bacteria and viruses Open and transparent international markets in agriculture and food products Non-tariff measures to minimize the trade cost during the crisis Health and safety measures for farmers
Manufacturing	Global supply chain disruptions, financial constraints, rapid switch to digital technologies, restricted movement of goods/services Slowed production, closing down of many businesses, loss of jobs Under time pressure, production and supply of critical medical equipment and associated supplies with increasing demand	Protecting the workforce by following safety guidelines, physical distancing, and remote work when possible Hiring of digitally skilled workers for remote work Reduce dependence on single central locations and countries for goods or raw materials, transparent and reliable supply chain
Construction	Job loss due to the closing down of many construction sites; construction worksites limited the number of people to continue work to practice social distancing, causing longer construction times and an increase in the risk of injuries	Safe work practices include staggered work schedules, practice 6 feet social distancing, rigorous housekeeping, keeping in-person meetings short, practice hygiene, job hazard analysis, PPE, physical barriers to separate employees from public
Healthcare	Many doctors, nurses, and healthcare staff have lost lives amid the pandemic Hospitals and private practices closing, reduced hours, furloughs, and layoffs of physicians High incidence of burnout was reported among healthcare professionals	Provide patients with Telehealth access so doctors avoid exposure, practice safe distancing, and use proper PPE Effective crisis management targeted at reducing healthcare professionals’ psychological stress Coping strategies, social support, flexible scheduling, resilience training
Transportation	Decrease in transportation revenue, pay reduction, business closure due to social distancing and lockdown	Reduce transit system services to increase safety for operators Cleaning and disinfecting vehicles, managing overcrowding by reducing seating, rear door boarding
Retail	Business closures to nonessential stores, bars, and venues, ban on large public gatherings Grocery stores remained open, and consumers appeared to be stocking up on certain goods and supplies; panic buying led to a supply shortage	Hazard and risk assessment, engineering and administrative controls, safe work practices, and PPE to protect retail workers Physical barriers to keep employees separate in cash register lanes, rope-and-stanchion systems to keep customers from queueing or congregating near work areas
Waterworks	Increase in consumption of water due to shifting of work populations to home, water production cost increase, global recession, and loss of jobs	Guidance to ensure the safety of building water systems, keep household plumbing and the nation’s water infrastructure operating properly
Waste Management	Lacking access to waste collection and disposal Increase in indoor rat infestation and spread of diseases Panic buying caused an increase in waste disposal; waste collection stopped due to social distancing	Zero waste approach promotes recycling of waste, controls greenhouse gas emissions, and minimizes disposal of toxic waste Conservation of all energy resources and environment, recycling and reuse of waste

). The organizational/industrial sectors are discussed below accordingly: pharmaceutical, food and agriculture, manufacturing, construction, healthcare, transportation, retail, waterworks, and waste management.

4.1. COVID-19 Impact on Pharmaceutical Industry

4.1.1. Challenges Faced

COVID-19 has changed how we work, and some of these changes have long-term implications. The pharmaceutical sector responsible for research, development, and distribution of pharmaceutical drugs played a significant role during the pandemic [13]. The pharmaceutical industry remains profitable, with a positive increase in the stock market and many employment opportunities, while other sectors suffered from job loss [14]. Pharma companies and their workforce must meet national health standards and global technological developments. Employment was on the rise in pharma companies worldwide, requiring both high-quality and highly skilled employees. However, pharma companies faced some challenges due to shortage of medicines, and demand for creating and distributing effective treatments and vaccines for COVID-19 [15].

There were several short-term and long-term impacts of COVID-19 on pharma industries [16]. COVID-19 possibly allowed growth in the pharmaceutical industry, as it increased the demand for prescription medicines, vaccines, and medical devices.

The rising incidence of COVID-19 and related pneumonia diagnoses led to increased hospitalizations. Respiratory ramifications led to an increased demand for assigning patients to ventilators, which furthered prescription medicine shortages during COVID-19. Many regulatory authorities worldwide announced a shortage in medicines, including potential therapies for COVID-19 and associated pulmonary illnesses. The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) shortage list included anti-COVID-19 potential pharmacotherapies, hydroxychloroquine (HQC), chloroquine (QC), and some other frequently prescribed medications. There was a shortage in medicines for COVID-19 hospitalized patients with respiratory signs in critical care units, such as azithromycin and dopamine. Globally, the impact on medicine shortage differed by medicine access level, retail and hospital-only, and type [16].

Pandemic-related shortages were also felt within the health market. Lack of medical devices and personal protective equipment (PPE), which includes protective goggles and visors, mouth–nose protection equipment, and protective clothing and gloves, forced countries to regulate distribution. Induced demand for stocking medication by the public, or “panic buying”, may cause a periodic shortage in the market, especially for chronic disease medications.

Asian countries such as India and China were active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) suppliers and generics. Potential shortages due to export bans in India and China forced governments of many countries to become self-sufficient. Regulations to avoid shortages due to social distancing precautions were enforced. Marketing and promotions of healthcare products to providers shifted from face-to-face to remote interactions, and Telecommunications for promotional and patient support purposes became a new normal.

4.1.2. Lessons Learned and Future Measures

The top priorities for pharma companies’ commercial organizations were to ensure the continuous delivery of consistent supply, drug access, and high-quality patient care, and to safeguard their employees [17]. After addressing those immediate priorities, leaders of pharma companies considered crisis management by focusing on how to steer their organizations through recovery from COVID-19 using a customer-centric approach [17].

Drug shortages and disruptions of overseas manufacturing or stockouts in pharmacies were largely due to medication misallocations during in the pandemic. Collaborative inputs and efforts from all interdependent stakeholders in pharmaceutical supply chains are critical for establishing transparent preparedness and contingency plans to address drug shortages affected by disruptions such as COVID-19. A stable supply process of therapeutic medications by pharma industries can be ensured by active management, a transparent supply chain process, and timely communications during a crisis [18].

4.2. COVID-19 Impact on the Healthcare Industry

4.2.1. Challenges Faced

The challenges faced by those within the healthcare industry were, and continue to be, shattering. Worldwide, medical professionals in all areas at all levels faced impossible challenges to save the lives of COVID-19 patients. As essential frontline workers, medical professionals risked their lives on a daily basis as they were often facing the unknown with each patient. Many worked round the clock, and were required to isolate or quarantine from their families for days at a time. The impacts to their physical and mental health will likely be life-long.

COVID-19 has had a severe impact on the healthcare industry in all counties. The healthcare industry has increased jobs to accommodate more staff members. Unfortunately, many doctors, nurses, and healthcare staff have lost lives amid the pandemic. The leading causes for such a chaotic situation during COVID-19 were the lack of knowledge of the virus and proper treatment methods. Due to this lack of preparation, items such as appropriate personal protective equipment for doctors and workers, medical equipment, ventilators, and sanitizers were very in short supply. This has prompted the healthcare industry worldwide to invent and implement new plans and technologies in preparation for future pandemic situations [18].

During the pandemic, healthcare professionals focused on, and took decisive action to implement, new life-saving therapies and techniques. The medical profession has come to embrace new ways to serve consumers, such as through telehealth. Reduced in-person patient visits to providers and the avoidance of exposure were reported following telehealth access to doctors during the pandemic. The pandemic created tremendous anxiety among patients. Consumer concerns included safety, well-being, access to a more convenient care site, and use of services that allow staying at home. Another reason the number of hospital visits was reduced was due to significant increases in unemployment during COVID-19, leading to losses of private insurance coverage and increased reliance on Medicaid and self-payment by consumers. For the above reasons, patients’ inability to pay for healthcare heightened during the pandemic. COVID-19 situations were relatively under control after the discovery and implementation of vaccines. Currently, COVID-19 has become a new normal in healthcare [19].

Hospital and private practice closures, reduced hours, furloughs, and layoffs of physicians, nurses, and hospital staff occurred during the COVID-19 pandemic in the US, which left many asking how it will affect the future of health care. Hospitals and clinics experienced reduced in-person clinic visits due to social distancing. There was a suspension of elective procedures and surgeries to prepare for COVID-19 patient loads. With the sudden surge of COVID-19 patients, some physicians and nurses were transferred or deployed to emergency departments outside their state or country of residence. Physicians and nurses who had not been trained or had not practiced emergency medicine or intensive care in years were deployed to COVID-19 units, raising concerns about the quality of care.

Moreover, personal protection equipment shortages added risks to the physicians and nurses taking care of COVID-19 patients. Many primary care and specialist physicians adopted telehealth as a substitute for in-person clinic visits during this pandemic. Telehealth is an excellent alternative that allows patients to have continuity of care without exposure to COVID-19. However, the payment reimbursement rate was slow for telehealth. Utilizing telehealth technologies has been a learning curve for both patients and physicians. Many physicians reported spending considerable time providing technical support to telehealth patients before the actual medical visit could commence [20].

The healthcare sector saw a sharp drop in revenues and employment at the onset of COVID-19 at the beginning of 2020. Health service utilization dropped as providers canceled elective care and patients practicing social distancing avoided health facilities. Utilization of health services has remained somewhat lower than expected during the pandemic based on the trend in the years before the pandemic. The Bureau of Labor Statistics’ Current Employment Survey (CES) and Job Openings and Labor Turnover Survey (JOLTS) provided data to support that health employment fell drastically in early 2020. The healthcare sector employment remains below expectations post pandemic, particularly for nursing care and community care centers for the elderly. The number of workers employed at nursing and elder care facilities remains significantly low compared to pre-pandemic levels. Community elder care facilities had 976,100 employees nationwide in February 2020, but only 892,200 in July 2022—an 8.6% decrease. Employment in these facilities reached a low of 869,400 in November of 2021. Employment has grown slightly post pandemic, but in the health sector it remains below expectations, particularly for nursing care and community care centers for the elderly [21].

A high incidence of burnout was reported among healthcare professionals during COVID-19, and burnout has been recognized as a severe health problem for both the professionals and their patients, and the organizations in which they work. Burnout is associated with the decreased mental and physical health of healthcare workers, lower quality of care, threats to patient safety, lower patient satisfaction, reduced productivity, increased turnover, and increased healthcare system costs [22].

4.2.2. Lessons Learned and Future Measures

The COVID-19 pandemic has posed significant challenges for public health systems globally. Healthcare professionals have represented the most critical resource for saving lives and limiting the impact of the pandemic. Unfortunately, they have experienced great psychological stress during the pandemic, while still being expected to function optimally at work.

Some of the best practices that were learned from facing challenges during the pandemic include the following:

• Effective crisis management to reduce healthcare professionals’ psychological stress is required to protect their mental health, well-being, and functioning.
• Sector-specific crisis measures are recommended to effectively address the specific work stressors faced by the outpatient sector, which is urgently required.
• Healthcare professionals might benefit from coping strategies that facilitate the utilization of social support, including team commitment and knowledge exchange.
• Flexible scheduling during pandemics should allow healthcare workers to interact with families and friends in ways that facilitate social support outside work [23].
• Adaptive coping strategies will moderate the negative effect of stress on burnout, which in turn will help reduce intentions to quit.
• Educating healthcare professionals on resilience training and focusing on adaptive coping approaches will be beneficial in minimizing stress and burnout [24]. During pandemics such as COVID-19, healthcare providers’ well-being and morale were particularly at stake. Healthcare systems and organizations should provide support to protect their clinical staff from burnout. A study reported that the stigma associated with COVID-19 may have contributed to burnout among healthcare providers. This burnout can be managed by providing training to learn new skills to cope with stigma and its negative impact on well-being [25].

4.3. COVID-19 Impact on Food and Agriculture

4.3.1. Challenges Faced

COVID-19 affected the global food industry as restaurants and bars closed down to prevent the spread of disease, and governments enforced lockdowns. The closing of restaurants and bars affected other related sectors such as liquor production, food, and beverage shipping, fishing, and farming. The United Nations warned the world about the recession and food crisis in June 2020 [26]. Supply chain disruptions, shortages due to panic buying, and a shorter supply of goods due to challenges in shipping and importing from other countries further escalated the crisis. Panic buying caused a scarcity of essential items and the emptying of shelves in retail industries. Online grocery shopping increased, and small-scale farmers started selling groceries digitally [27].

The shutdown of restaurants and bars due to social distancing measures indirectly affected the agricultural industry, with decreased demand for restaurant and commercial food services. The lack of need from the restaurant industry left farmers discarding their excess produce as there was no demand, loss of jobs, and unstable economy. The planting and harvesting of crops is labor intensive, and the timing is often not flexible for seasonally grown foods [28]. Many workers lived in shared or dorm-style housing, which posed a challenge when practicing social distancing. The question remains as to whether small family-owned farms are more resilient in this situation than larger farms, as they do not have to use external labor [28].

Meatpacking and poultry processing industries were severely affected by the pandemic [29]. The number of cases of COVID-19 reported was significantly high during April, May, June, and July 2020. There were at least 115 facilities with cases reported in April 2020 across 23 states in the US, and at least 4913 workers were diagnosed positive for COVID-19 [30]. At least 45 of those workers died of COVID-19 [31]. Over 10,000 meatpacking plant workers in 29 states and 170 plants tested positive for the COVID-19 in May 2020. Approximately 15,300 workers were infected with COVID-19 at 192 different meatpacking plants in the United States, based on ongoing reporting by the Midwest Center for Investigative Reporting and USA Today. At least 63 workers have died from the disease [32]. A minimum of 20,400 COVID-19 infections were recorded in June 2020 in 216 meatpacking plants in 33 states, according to the Midwest Center for Investigative Reporting analysis, in cooperation with USA Today [33]. At least 91 of those workers have died. CDC reported 239 facilities with 16,233 confirmed cases and 86 deaths in July 2020 [34]. By September, at least 42,534 workers at meatpacking plants had contracted the COVID-19, and at least 203 workers had died. COVID-19 cases were reported in at least 494 meatpacking plants [35].

In the United States, the meat industry employs 474,000 workers, of whom 194,000 are frontline meatpacking workers in slaughterhouses and processing plants. Many meatpacking workers are Hispanic (44.4%) and African American (25.2%). Most (51.5%) of the frontline meatpacking workers are immigrants, compared to 17% of the general workforce in the United States [36]. Although the effects of COVID-19 on racial and ethnic minority groups are not yet entirely understood, data suggest a disproportionate burden of illness and death among these populations. Ongoing efforts to reduce the incidence and recognize the effects of COVID-19 on the health of racial and ethnic minority groups are significant to ensure that workplace-specific prevention strategies and interventions are tailored to those most affected by COVID-19 [34].

Illnesses among meat and poultry workers were relatively high compared to other manufacturing sector workers, even before the pandemic began, as the federal Government Accountability Office (GAO) reported in 2016. CDC guidelines for practicing social distancing and routine sanitation during the pandemic significantly reduced the risk of spreading the COVID-19 virus. Meat and poultry workers, primarily immigrants, were also less likely to report illness because of fear of job loss. Employees work close together in plants, making social distancing difficult; not being able to follow the CDC guidelines during the pandemic strictly led to increased cases of COVID-19 and deaths in meatpacking facilities. Meat and poultry processing facilities were considered critical infrastructures, and workers in those sectors continued working during COVID-19, generating and supplying necessary meat production for the country [37]. The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) allowed relaxed protection at 15 poultry plants in April 2020, which increased poultry production speeds. However, this caused more crowded working conditions and a greater risk of transmitting COVID-19 among those poultry workers [37]. Many criticized the lack of inspections and enforcement of social distancing and practicing hygiene rules in those sectors.

Distinguishing factors that increased meat and poultry processing workers’ risk of exposure to SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19, include prolonged close workplace contact with coworkers (within 6 feet for ≥15 min) for extended periods (8–12 h shifts). Shared workspaces and transportation to and from the workplace, congregate housing, and frequent community contact with fellow workers also had an impact. Many of these factors might also be contributed to ongoing community transmission (Figure 1). Adhering to social distancing guidelines in meatpacking facilities was difficult, as workers stood closely along production lines and often shared common employee spaces (i.e., locker rooms, canteens, and bathrooms). Workers were involved in moderate to heavy work, including lifting, cutting, and carrying activities, causing workers to breathe heavily, possibly spreading viruses. Low-paid migrant workers sometimes stay together in shared accommodations, increasing the risk of transmission of COVID-19 and other infectious diseases [38].

Meat processing and packing facilities not just in the US, but also around the world, were affected during COVID-19. Many facilities were shut down due to increased COVID-19 cases and deaths. Many workers lost their jobs who worked in those facilities. The meat shortage and crisis led to increased sales of plant-based products and meat replacement products. Meat alternatives and vegan food sales increased during COVID-19.

4.3.2. Lessons Learned and Future Measures

Research publications on COVID-19 effects on agricultural production and food security increased exponentially from 2016 to April 2021, revealing an interest in those topics due to the pandemic [39]. All types of food can be contaminated through contact and cause foodborne illnesses. Pathogens can contaminate knives, saws, containers, surfaces, and clothing, and thus spread diseases. Proper cleaning and prevention of cross-contamination are critical to controlling foodborne illnesses. SARS-CoV-2 can remain viable on substances for nine days and spread rapidly from human to human [40].

Good hygiene practices, handwashing, good housekeeping, cleaning tools and equipment used for food, cleaning surfaces where food is handled, and using clean water reduces the presence of bacteria and viruses on contact surfaces. Raw and cooked food should be kept separately to minimize the risk of exposure to any foodborne bacteria and viruses [41].

Best agriculture and food industry practices that can be performed during a pandemic are mentioned below and shown in Figure 2.

• COVID-19 caused a short supply of stock as many exporters restricted exports, forcing many countries that rely on exports to feed their populations to purchase in excess and stockpile their grains and foods. The international agriculture and food markets should remain open and transparent without trade restrictions.
• Non-tariff measures to minimize the trade cost during a crisis.
• Address labor constraints, declare food safety workers as essential, facilitate farmers with flexible scheduling and alternate work, and take health and safety measures for farmers.
• Establish biosafety and biosecurity regulations for properly handling foods, including the humane slaughter of animals, safe preparation and handling of animals, and consumption of meat.
• Cooperate with private sectors for smooth functioning of food supply chains.
• Ensure food and nutrition standards of vulnerable populations, such as the elderly, chronically ill, poor, and people following social distancing for exposure to COVID-19, are met. Emergency food assistance, food banks, school meals, and low-cost options in supermarkets should sufficiently meet demands.

High-population-density workplace settings such as meat and poultry processing facilities present ongoing challenges. Collaborative implementation of interventions and prevention efforts, including comprehensive testing strategies, could help reduce COVID-19 and other infectious diseases in the occupational setting. Targeted workplace-specific prevention strategies are critical to lowering COVID-19-associated health disparities among vulnerable populations such as older people, people suffering from chronic diseases, and certain racial/ethnic groups. Lessons learned from investigating outbreaks of COVID-19 in meat and poultry processing facilities could inform investigations in other food production and agriculture workplaces to help prevent and reduce COVID-19 transmission among all workers in these essential industries.

4.4. COVID-19 Impact on Manufacturing Industry

4.4.1. Challenges Faced

Manufacturing industries take a leading role in maintaining global economic stability. Before the pandemic, manufacturing production suffered a worldwide economic slowdown in 2019. Manufacturing has previously faced large-scale disruptions dealing with natural disasters, political disturbances, wars, infectious diseases, etc. Despite handling disasters in the past, little has been learned to assist with successfully coping with the pandemic situation. During COVID-19, manufacturing facilities faced difficulties such as canceled orders, poor revenues, falling stock prices, unpredictable markets, distorted supply, and disrupted supply chains [42].

Manufacturing industries faced a challenge in recruiting a new generation workforce. Most manufacturing industries have an aging workforce who are nearing retirement. The pandemic has strained the labor market, making it hard to find and retain jobs for young workers [42]. New opportunities can arise for young workers to receive training and find employment in the manufacturing sector.

The financial constraints in manufacturing industries were severe, as investments were made more in digital technologies to improve productivity, marketing, and sales. Moreover, digitally skilled workers were needed, and the workforce needs to be trained [42]. Young generations who are more tech-savvy and have practical understanding can be a good fit for these jobs.

Global trade wars and global trade tensions between countries have created logistics issues during COVID-19 concerning the import of manufacturing goods, and have affected developing countries even more. The most affected manufacturers during COVID-19 were those who rely heavily on the international market, global supply chains, and export/import of key components and raw materials [43]. The restricted movement of goods, services, workforce, and local transport by air, water, and road has halted production, leading to the loss of jobs, and creating an unstable global economy. Due to the lockdown, perishable food items could not reach the market in time, and became a waste.

The manufacturing industry had to meet the increasing demand for supplying critical medical equipment and associated supplies during COVID-19. Under tremendous pressure, manufacturers had to produce and deliver ventilators, surgical masks, oxygen cylinders, gloves, testing swabs, face shields, respirators, and other PPE. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), increase in PPE production by 40% was required to meet the shortage in 2020 during COVID-19. In addition to the medical supplies, manufacturers faced challenges in excess production of essential items, such as hand sanitizers and toilet paper, when they faced a massive surge in demand during COVID-19.

Business was even harder for small- and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) due to the slowdown of the global economy during the pandemic. Market demand decreased for certain nonessential products, with people losing jobs and suffering from the economic crisis. Many SMEs globally suffered from shrinking production, bankruptcy, limited capital reserve, and financial crisis [44].

The manufacturing sector faced several significant challenges during COVID-19, including a shortage in lending, currency volatility, disruption of supply chains, and downward pressure on prices. There has been a global shift in manufacturing from western to eastern countries. The manufacturing sector was increasing in Asia, mainly in India and China, and had shrunk in most advanced economies. Western companies have progressively downsized over the past decades, outsourcing many of their companies from home to other countries, primarily Asian nations, resulting in increased manufacturing productivity. Manufacturers in western countries are value-driven, concentrating more on technically advanced industries or products, and competing with low-wage economies to meet customer needs. The West focuses more on innovation, flexibility, and universal adoption of lean manufacturing techniques [45].

4.4.2. Lessons Learned and Future Measures

Manufacturing organizations faced significant operational challenges with the onset of COVID-19. Some companies were forced to temporarily shut down and stop production due to a decrease in demand, social distancing, and lockdown. In contrast, others faced a significant increase in requests for the production of essential supplies.

Manufacturing leaders implemented several best practices that are outlined below.

• Protecting the workforce: creating standard operating procedures and safety protocols for keeping workers safe during COVID-19 [46].
• Driving productivity at a distance: effectively managing performance at the plant for onsite employees while continuing physical distancing and remote work for other employees [46].
• Communication and risk management: Two-way information exchange between managers and employees to discuss the crisis of COVID-19, proper ways to manage risk, and protect employees in the plant [46]. Conduct a continuity business risk assessment.
• Protecting supply chains: Focus on geographic diversification by reducing dependence on only one country or significant location. Utilize digital technologies such as cargo tracking and cloud-based GPS to increase the visibility of the supply chain. Engineer supply chain to be sustainable and resilient during the crisis by focusing on an agile supply chain network, end-to-end visibility for the supplier ecosystem, and real-time data collection to identify disruptions in the process [47].

Globally, manufacturing industries are the leaders in the green economy, with growing demand for green and clean products. Research needs to focus on the impact of COVID-19 on the environment, manufacturers’ responses to COVID-19, and the impact of digitalization in manufacturing [42,43]. Several research publications have focused on how to build a resilient supply chain. Although measuring resilience is very complex, exploring the relationship between supply chain resilience and factors such as efficiency, complexity, and impact will help [48]. Future research is needed on flexible supply chain contracts to improve immunity during disruptions such as the pandemic. Future research should also focus on developing contingency strategies to support manufacturers during crises, and help them recover from disasters [49].

4.5. COVID-19 Impact on the Construction Industry

4.5.1. Challenges Faced

The construction sector had considerable challenges during the COVID-19 pandemic. The industry as a whole had a reduction in labor at the inception of the pandemic; Hispanic workers and employees under 35 years old were those most affected. The construction labor force quickly rebounded to a 4.2% increase in the first quarter of 2022 [50]. Most construction globally was considered “essential work” during the pandemic’s peak when other businesses were closed down. They quickly had to develop fluid plans to adapt to their business while protecting their workforce. Since construction was deemed “essential work” by the Centers for Disease Control (CDC), the option of delaying the project during outbreaks was often not an option [51]. Construction was vital to expand the infrastructure and abilities of schools and businesses to work remotely.

The struggles encountered not only impacted the labor force due to respiratory illness, but impacted their supply chain, increased material costs, delayed shipment, and increased challenges faced in equipping their companies with cleaning supplies and personal protective equipment (PPE). The delay in the delivery of supplies created a burden for small businesses, which comprise 90% of all construction companies, that may not have the capital to burden the extended lead times for projection completion [51]. Increased unemployment insurance premiums impacted companies due to workers missing due to infections and quarantine measures. Labor shortages result in those onsite employees working overtime, which creates an environment that often results in an exhausted workforce.

Vaccination rates in the construction industry compounded the challenges listed previously. The vaccination rate for the construction industry lagged behind other sectors at 52.4% vaccinated as of July 2022 compared to the 81.7% vaccination rate of all other sectors [50]. A report from the Center for Construction Research and Training (CPWR) stated that 60% of the construction industry have co-morbidities: diabetes, high blood pressure, and a higher risk of cardiovascular conditions [52].

They quickly had to develop plans to adapt to their business while protecting their workforce. The construction industry overcame many challenges other industries faced upon reopening. The environments of these other industries may vary, but the exposures remained the same.

4.5.2. Lessons Learned and Future Measures

Since COVID-19 cannot be eliminated in the worksite, risk management and a hierarchy of control implementations are the only lines of defense.

Engineering Controls

• Ventilation

One of the positive aspects of construction is that most work is conducted outside or in open-air spaces; this works in the industry’s favor (American Industrial Hygiene Association, 2020). SARS-CoV-2 virus is known to become deactivated with extended ultraviolet exposure [53].

Ventilation used as a dilution is recommended to reduce the amount of virus-contaminated concentrated in the breathing zone. The indoor finishing work can be conducted more safely by increasing air exchanges in a closed area and increasing distances between trade workers. Indoor working area risk can be accomplished using a ventilation unit comprised of a high-efficiency filter [52].

2.

Social Distance and Physical Barriers

Construction transportation and carpooling are common in this sector. Depending on the area’s demographics, many trade workers share a large vehicle to travel to and from work. The close proximities of the commuters increase the risk of outbreaks.

Construction employees typically work in pairs, and if they travel from site to site, they commonly share a method of transportation. Since most construction companies are small businesses, taking separate work trucks is not feasible. Their circle is smaller during these instances, posing an exposure risk.

Many international construction companies installed Plexiglas systems to provide division among worker teams while en route. Some companies created pairs of employees that solely worked together on projects to reduce the circle of contact. Construction work setups involving 6-foot distancing, especially among different subcontractors, also minimize the risk among workers.

Breaks and designated lunchtimes should be modified when community cases peak. Construction workers should be encouraged not to eat in groups but rather their vehicles to remain separated.

3.

Procedures

Centers for Disease Control recommends companies create company-specific procedures to reduce COVID-19 exposures. The CPWR has developed a free planning tool accessible to assist subcontractors in formulating strategies. This free planning tool can be accessed on the CPWR website, and the procedure can be saved and printed for future access.

The COVID-19 Manager on the site should have the proper training to ensure the process is consistent. The requirements can vary from state to state, so the designated COVID-19 Manager should keep a spreadsheet accessible to all sites showing the requirements for their particular construction site area.

4.

Additional Administrative Controls

Checklists, questionnaires, cleaning protocols, contact tracing, and temperature monitoring have been a mainstay for many companies during the pandemic. Upon entering many construction sites, employees and subcontractors undergo temperature screening, and often are provided a list of questions regarding potential exposures since the previous work day. The infrared and digital thermometers are often inaccurate due to the variability in results. The accuracy of both digital and infrared screening devices can be improved by daily calibration. Infrared technology is utilized as a quick screening tool; if the temperature is read at 100.4 °F or higher, the digital thermometer should be used to confirm the finding.

Construction companies and contractors should utilize a layered approach and temperature monitoring. Studies reveal that a person could be spreading the virus before having symptoms of COVID-19. Viral loading was lower, but the exposure risk was not eliminated. Newer variants are not causing temperature increases as much as the previous variants [52].

In many instances, construction contractors utilize checklists and questionnaires for those delivering products onsite. Delivery drivers should be held to the same screening standard; most delivery vehicles travel nationwide. They may leave a COVID-19 Red Zone and enter a construction site in a COVID-19 Green Zone. Truck drivers face the same pressure, and often drive sick due to labor shortages.

Centers for Disease Control has a questionnaire that is easy to follow and administer. This questionnaire is available at https://www.cdc.gov/screening/, accessed on 12 December 2022.

Third-party companies, if economically feasible, can be an excellent resource to provide onsite testing employed to test those identified as high risk due to temperature reading and questionnaire results. Diagnosing a COVID-19 case as early as possible will assist in reducing unneeded quarantines and other labor shortages.

Cleaning materials and supplies during the pandemic posed a challenge for sites. Cleaning protocols not only had to include personal areas, but also work trucks, tools, work trailers, and any contact surfaces. Tools are often shared between workers, allowing for direct contact between those utilizing work tools. The latest approved EPA SARS-CoV-2 cleaners are listed on the Centers for Disease Controls’ website.

5.

Training

Before implementing new policies and procedures, discussions should occur among workforce leaders to ensure proposed changes continue to provide for the safety of the workforce. Sharing the new policies before installation will reduce any pushback. The construction company’s policies should be covered in orientation before subcontractors or other representatives come to the site. This communication will address screening techniques and state or community requirements. Tailgate discussions should take place when changes are needed due to the fluidity of COVID-19. NIOSH and CPWR have produced a wide variety of training resources. These can be accessed free of charge on the CPWR website: https://www.cpwr.com/covid-19-resources/, accessed on 12 December 2022.

6.

Personal Protective Equipment

Construction workers utilize N95s and P100s to reduce silica exposure. Respirators have increased cardiovascular risk, especially during the summer months. Surgical masks, cloth face coverings, and gaiters are not respirators. Face coverings can pose the same risk as N95s and P100s in certain circumstances.

CDC completed a study that showed some type of mask used for indoor areas coincided with the wearer being less likely to test positive for COVID-19 [52]. Gaiters were commonly used on construction worksites due to the thin nature of the fabric. A recent study showed that using a multi-layered fabric gaiter is efficient at providing protection similar to a face mask [52]. Single-layer and double-layer gaiters were shown to be less effective. Furthermore, another con to gaiter use is the gaiter frequently slides down the worker’s face. Improper use of a gaiter provides limited protection, if any protection at all. The masks listed by CDC above would be the best face masks to implement onsite during community outbreaks.

4.6. COVID 19 Impact on the Transportation Industry

4.6.1. Challenges Faced

One of the most affected industries during pandemic was the transportation industry [54]. Travel restrictions were put in place globally to minimize virus transmission and infection spread [55]. As a result, a dramatic decrease in transportation revenue was seen, from pay decreases and redundancies to closures of long-standing businesses [56].

Maritime and airfreight transport provide essential transportation services for global merchandise trade, including US imports. In early 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic disrupted maritime shipping and airfreight services, leading to canceled sailings and flights, port delays, and container shortages. These disruptions were particularly profound for US imports from Northeast Asia [57].

4.6.2. Lessons Learned and Future Measures

FEMA published COVID-19 best practice information on public transportation [58]. There were several lessons learned during COVID-19. Some of the best practices for managing a pandemic crisis include the following:

• Allowing for rear door boarding and limiting the exposure between drivers and passengers.
• Passengers with accessibility/mobility needs may request to use the front door to access the ramp.
• Some bus operators were not able to automatically open rear doors. Commuters may have to open back doors, further exposing them to COVID-19 manually. Automatic system implementation for opening doors may prevent exposure.
• Cleaning all vehicles daily and disinfecting commonly touched surfaces multiple times a day.
• Numerous transit systems can reduce services to increase safety for operators while discouraging unnecessary trips to decrease the risk to those who use public transportation.
• Managing overcrowding by reducing seating by 50% by tagging seats as unavailable to adhere to social distancing measures. Once buses have reached capacity, digital signs can advise individuals to wait for the next bus. Transit systems can place passenger limits on fixed-route services. Once a bus is full, the driver may contact a dispatcher to send another vehicle for the remaining passengers.

4.7. COVID-19 Impact on the Retail Industry

4.7.1. Challenges Faced

As COVID-19 began to spread rapidly across the world in March–April 2020, countries imposed nationwide lockdowns to curb its disastrous effects. March 12 marked the beginning of such measures brought into Ireland as pubs and nightclubs were asked to close, and large gatherings and travel were restricted. Less than two weeks later, a complete national lockdown was imposed in which all nonessential retailers were to close their doors, and any unnecessary travel was banned. The COVID-19 lockdown has hit the retail industry hard [59]. Some small businesses and restaurants that had to close their doors have been unable to reopen after the lockdown was over.

As COVID-19 began to spread worldwide, people were fearful of national lockdowns and unsure what would happen. The lockdowns caused a global “panic buying” problem, in which people were stocking up on various essential food and household items in supermarkets, causing stock shortages. In the comprehensive online purchases data collected for 2020, an approximate 89% increase in online purchases of food and drink compared to the percentage of food and groceries purchased online in 2019 [60]. There was also an increase in assets relating to health and fitness applications with the closure of many gyms. People chose to stay fit at home and exercise during COVID-19 restrictions [61].

After one year of the outbreak of the highly infectious virus COVID-19, many countries gradually lifted the restriction measures, which imposed closures to non-necessity stores, bars, and venues, as well as a ban on large public gatherings. Specific sectors witnessed growth, and considerable increases in sales of consumer goods were recorded in heavily affected countries, such as the United States, Italy, Germany, and the United Kingdom. This growth increase resulted from the fact that grocery stores had remained open, with consumers appearing to be stocking up on certain goods and supplies. The social distancing measures enforced for COVID-19 during 2020 and the online retail surge caused high store closings in the retail and leisure sector. The retail group Inditex, in the first half of 2020, announced 1000 store closures worldwide.

4.7.2. Lessons Learned and Future Measures

Retail workers in critical and high-customer-volume environments, particularly those in the medium-risk category who have frequent contact with the public, must be protected from exposure to SARS-CoV-2 and other pathogens. Various engineering and administrative controls, safe work practices, and PPE may be appropriate to protect retail workers, depending on their employers’ hazard and risk assessments.

Some of the best practices include the following:

• As appropriate, such as at customer service windows and, if feasible, cash register lanes, use physical barriers to separate retail workers from members of the general public.
• Use rope-and-stanchion systems to keep customers from queueing or congregating near work areas. For example, provide a waiting room for customers separated by at least 6 feet from a cash register workstation. Signage that instructs individuals waiting in line to remain 6 feet back from work areas may bolster the effectiveness of this engineering control.

4.8. COVID 19 Impact on the Waterworks Industry

4.8.1. Challenges Faced

COVID-19 impact on the waterworks industry was mainly driven by increased consumption due to shifting work populations at home, global recession, and loss of jobs. Customers started spending more as more time was spent at home, which increased per capita consumption and water production costs [62]. The National Association of Clean Water Agencies (NACWA) has estimated that the impact of COVID-19 on water utilities will be approximately 12.5 billion United States Dollars. According to the American Water Works Association (AWWA), water service was necessary for maintaining hygiene and sanitary conditions at home and outside during COVID-19, and required for life-sustaining equipment or other critical purposes. Water use for cleaning and sanitation increased during the pandemic [63].

4.8.2. Lessons Learned and Future Measures

The EPA informed the public that the COVID-19 virus was not detected in drinking-water supplies and the risk to water supplies was low [64]. The EPA suggested that people can continue to use and drink water from their taps during COVID-19. The EPA also encouraged the public to help keep household plumbing and the nation’s water infrastructure operating properly by flushing toilet paper, while disinfecting wipes and other items should be disposed of in the trash, not in the toilet [64].

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) issued guidance to ensure the safety of building water systems. They encouraged that water systems should be prepared for questions from building owners/operators managing hotels, schools, childcare facilities, large campuses, office buildings, and public buildings [65,66]. Some state agencies required building owners/operators to take appropriate steps to prevent water quality problems before re-entry into buildings after the COVID-19 crisis, and to remind businesses and schools about existing guidelines for seasonal systems [66,67].

4.9. COVID 19 Impact on the Waste Management Industry

4.9.1. Challenges Faced

Globally, the waste management sector was facing challenges long before the start of the COVID-19 pandemic. With over two billion people lacking access to waste collection, and three billion people lacking access to waste disposal, the emergence of the pandemic amplified the burden globally [68]. The waste management industry faced significant challenges with lockdown and social distancing protocols during COVID-19 (Figure 3). Hotels, restaurants, and food services were shut down during COVID-19, which drove rats to move indoors in search of food [69]. In urban areas of Canada, there were reports of a 50% increase in indoor rat infestation, which led to the spread of pathogens such as E. coli and Salmonella [70]. The onset of COVID-19 provoked panic in buying essential household items such as food, face masks, toilet paper, cleaning products, hand sanitizers, etc. This panic buying increased the disposal of perishable items and generated tons of waste. COVID-19 also created more medical waste from hospitals dealing with the emergence of the new strain of COVID-19. Daily waste of hospital medical waste, including face masks and gloves, increased significantly in China and Barcelona, and new construction of waste facilities was reported in China [69]. Waste pickers who depend on picking up waste as their livelihood were forced to stop waste collection during COVID-19 for social distancing measures. In Turkey, 8000 waste pickers were banned by the Turkish government to control the spread of COVID-19 [69]. Proper waste management during a pandemic, including safety measures taken for the collection, treatment, and disposal of waste, will ensure the continuity and functionality of waste services and waste handlers [69].

4.9.2. Lessons Learned and Future Measures

The COVID-19 pandemic has triggered a zero waste approach, which can promote waste recycling to 70–80%, control greenhouse gas emissions, and minimize toxic waste disposal. Navigating towards achieving zero-waste- and zero-carbon-based economic development, conserving all energy resources and the environment, and recycling and reusing waste will help save our planet and prepare ourselves for any future crisis [71].

5. Discussion

COVID-19 was a significant public health concern worldwide due to its rapid spread among humans, uncertainties of long-term complications, and the emergence of new strains [72]. This paper has focused on understanding essential organizations’ challenges during a pandemic, and best practices to prepare for future crises. The impacts of COVID in different sectors were discussed in the following order: pharmaceutical, food and agriculture, manufacturing, construction, healthcare, transportation, retail, waterworks, and waste management.

The primary findings from the study demonstrate that industries faced severe challenges during COVID-19. Food and meat packaging industries were among the most significantly affected businesses. Panic buying during COVID and a shorter supply of goods due to transportation disruption created chaos. The number of COVID cases was significantly higher in meat packaging and poultry processing facilities compared to other industries [27,36]. Lack of enforcement of strict regulations, lack of social distancing, and not practicing hygiene and sanitation were some of the main causes, leading to increased infections among those workers [34]. These findings align with the CDC article published on 10 July 2020, which focused on how COVID-19 outbreaks among meat and poultry processing facility workers can rapidly spread among a large number of workers in a short period. The article further supported the idea by providing distinctive factors that can lead to the rapid spread of disease, including close contact with workers at workplaces for extended periods of time, congregate housing, shared transportation, and community gatherings or activities [33,40].

Many manufacturing and construction industries closed while others furloughed employees, slowed production, and suffered economic loss in an unpredictable market [43,44,51]. Travel restrictions affected the transportation industry, and transit systems reduced services for the safety of drivers and travelers [57]. Lockdowns affected the retail industry by influencing people to stock up on essential household items, leading to panic buying [6,60,61]. Lockdown forced people to stay at home, which led to greater water consumption and affected the waterworks industry [66,67]. The waste management industry faced significant challenges following lockdown and social distancing when trash was not collected regularly, resulting in excess waste and increased pathogens [70]. A systematic review article published in Science Progress in 2021 showed the global impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic lockdown on crucial aspects of daily life, including food security, global economy, education, tourism, hospitality, sports and leisure, gender relation, domestic violence, mental health, and environmental air pollution aspects [73]. These findings, which focus on challenges faced during lockdown by different industrial sectors, are supported by many publications. Many of these articles have focused on only one industrial sector or organization type [74,75,76]. Our paper is unique as it focuses on COVID-19 impacts on multiple essential industrial and organizational sectors in a single review article.

Our review shows many similarities among challenges faced by different industries and organizations during the pandemic. Most industries, such as agriculture and meat packaging industry, food industry, retail, manufacturing, and construction, faced production loss and lockdown during COVID-19. Numerous workers in those sectors lost their jobs during the pandemic. The findings also suggest that in many of these sectors, immigrants and low-income workers are employed. Their loss of jobs escalated further the challenges they already faced to support their families before COVID-19 emerged. A number of studies corroborated these findings. A paper published in 2021 on COVID-19 among food manufacturing and agriculture, meat and poultry processing workers reported that high-density workplaces are at risk of transmission of COVID-19. Out of 742 food and agriculture workplaces in 30 US states, 8978 workers had confirmed cases and 55 workers died from COVID-19. The study reported that racial and ethnic minority workers were disproportionately affected by COVID-19 [77].

The review also indicated several unique challenges faced by different organizations during the pandemic. In healthcare sectors, several unique challenges were reported during the pandemic. Frontline healthcare workers faced a sudden influx of patients with the new, highly contagious, life-threatening disease. This undoubtedly caused a great deal of stress among hospital workers. Healthcare workers around the world suffered from mental distress when failing to provide adequate treatment due to lack of knowledge about the emerging disease, lack of drugs and vaccines during the onset of COVID-19, shortage of essential PPE, oxygen cylinders, ventilators, and other essential medical equipment and supplies at the onset of COVID-19. Healthcare professionals worked around the clock to treat COVID patients, and put themselves at risk of infection. Many doctors and nurses lost their lives to COVID-19 or committed suicide from stress and burnout during the pandemic [19,21]. All these findings are supported by numerous publications indicating unique challenges faced by healthcare sectors. A study published in 2021 in “Frontiers in Public Health” on the challenges faced by healthcare professionals during COVID-19 is in line with our findings. The study reported situational and organizational factors such as higher workload, psychological distress, shortage of high-quality personal protective equipment, social exclusion/stigmatization, lack of incentives, absence of coordination, unclear communication and lack of enforcement for policies, procedures had an unprecedented impact on healthcare professionals during the pandemic [78].

Unique challenges were also faced by pharmaceutical companies during the pandemic. The pharmaceutical industry played a significant role in creating new jobs and supplying essential drugs and vaccines during COVID. This is supported by a study published on Farmacia Hospitalaria in 2021. The study reported that the pharmacy profession has stepped up during the COVID-19 crisis. Pharmaceutical scientists have been involved in finding effective vaccines and drugs for COVID-19 [79]. Pharma industries have created new jobs during the pandemic. However, a medical shortage globally affected the health market, and a lack of PPE, medicine, and equipment forced distribution regulation [2]. Pharma industries have stepped up and shown commitment to communities by expanding the scope of practice through digital technologies and providing scientific research on vaccines to prevent spreading diseases from new strains of COVID [79].

The review paper reported some of the common best practices followed by different organizations globally to control the spread of COVID-19, which included the following [80,81]:

• Maintaining social distancing of minimum 6 feet from others.
• Wearing face masks.
• Practicing hygiene and sanitation.
• Enforcement of strict regulations by the government to control COVID-19.
• Ventilation control in buildings.
• Remote work options for people when possible etc.
• Open and transparent market for the global supply of goods.

Many governmental agencies and previous published articles reported similar best practices to those mentioned above. The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) reported best practices during the COVID-19 pandemic for cleaning and disinfecting. The EPA published protocols for cleaning and disinfecting procedures in April 2021, which involved following CDC, state and local public health guidelines, cleaning surfaces with soap and water, and use of EPA-registered disinfectants according to container label directions [82]. OSHA also released COVID-19 guidance on social distancing at work, including encouraging workers to stay home if they are sick, isolating any worker who begins to exhibit symptoms until they can either go home or leave to seek medical care, and establishing flexible worksites and work hours [83].

It is clearly implied from the results section that COVID-19 has disrupted businesses and organizational sectors, which are essential in providing necessary goods and services to people across the world. This was strongly supported by numerous publications on this matter. It is also clear from the results that those challenges have given us an opportunity to better understand how we can prevent a future pandemic crisis and how we can recover if a similar crisis occurs. Implementing best practices learned during COVID-19 is necessary to survive a pandemic and keep employees safe in crisis. This review paper focuses on different essential sectors, and discusses the challenges and best practices learned from the pandemic for each sector. By including many sectors in the review, our paper will help to understand which safe protocols other organizations/business sectors took to recover from the pandemic that might be helpful in preparation to fight or cope with a crisis.

We analyzed the pandemic’s impact worldwide and focused on a general analysis of all possible consequences. However, we acknowledge that the pandemic impact in different sectors discussed in the paper varies in different countries.

Countries vary in COVID cases and fatalities, and in enforcing strict regulations to control the spread of infections [84].

Some countries, such as China and South Korea, were able to control their COVID cases better than others in the beginning. Other better-performing countries that were able to reduce the number of cases/slow the progress of COVID include Japan and Singapore [84].

Other countries, for example, Germany and Iceland, were also somewhat successful in controlling the spread of COVID cases [85]. Many European and North American countries were unprepared for such a pandemic. Sweden had been an outlier for having relaxed lockdown regulations but still having a lower fatality rate [85]. Lack of testing or poor test sensitivity in some countries led to poor calculations or undercounting of COVID cases [86]. No matter the differences each country faced during the pandemic, there is a common picture: almost every country faced the anguish of an increase in COVID cases, loss of jobs, lockdown, long food lines, ambulance sirens, overwhelmed healthcare professionals, business closure, keeping distance from elderly loved ones to protect them, social distancing, etc. [87].

All governments imposed the pandemic lockdown and travel bans across the world following the start of COVID-19 [88]. Rigorous efforts to control the spread of infection included wearing face masks, social distancing, quarantining, sanitation, hand washing, avoidance of public gatherings and public transportation, etc. The transformation of adapting to the new regulations and fear of contracting infections put people in mental agony. Millions of migrant workers in India were left without food and unable to travel home due to the sudden lockdown regulations imposed [89]. Many migrants faced serious challenges with loss of jobs, no access to shelter or food, and being isolated from their families as public transportation was canceled. Hundreds of people died from this brutality, and the majority of the migrants suffered traumatic experiences [89]. Migrant workers in many other countries, including Saudi Arabia and Singapore, were affected disproportionally more than the rest of the population due to poor work conditions, low-paid jobs and living in crowded dormitories. As of May 2020, 75% of the newly confirmed cases were reported in migrant workers in Saudi Arabia. As of June 2020, over 95% of the confirmed cases were among migrants in Singapore [90].

The International Labour Organization (ILO) launched an assessment of the COVID-19 impact on specific social and economic sectors and industries. The reported COVID-19 pandemic imposed pressure on workers and businesses in the agri-food industry, especially the meat processing sectors. Outbreaks of COVID-19 in the meat processing sector helped us to understand and reform the sustainable development for that sector. The construction sector was impacted significantly, and recovery measures can be taken to move towards sustainability, digitalization of work, and creation of new jobs in the sector. The ILO’s brief reports, which were updated regularly to keep up with new information available, included governmental actions and employers and employees’ best practices to help recover these important sectors [3].

The present study has several limitations. The review paper focuses on several specific essential businesses or organizational sectors, but does not include every sector considered essential by CDC [1] or the ILO [3]. Only certain sectors that played a key role during COVID in supplying necessities for people and providing essential services were chosen for this review. The consequences of the pandemic were different in many countries [91]. We have kept it general, but address in the discussion section how different countries varied for COVID cases and fatalities, business and industry sectors enforcing regulations, and challenges faced that will help prepare for future crises. Despite the limitations, the study is significant in understanding the challenges different sectors faced during COVID-19 and the best practices learned from those challenges that will help prepare for similar future emergencies.

6. Conclusions

The COVID-19 pandemic has created a health and economic crisis and has presented several challenges for business and global supply chains. The lockdown that followed the outbreak of COVID-19 brought many industry productions to a standstill. The pandemic disrupted many companies worldwide due to complete or partial lockdown and social distancing measures that affected the supply chain and reduced goods and services production. Income decline, layoffs, and fear of contagion led to reduced customer spending, which further caused job losses and business closures [92]. The current paper helps us understand how each individual essential sector faced severe challenges during COVID-19, and provides us valuable information on the best practices that can be adopted for each sector to prepare for any future pandemic (Table 1). Including many sectors together in the review paper helped to understand which safe protocols other organizations/business sectors took to recover from the pandemic that might be helpful in preparation to fight or cope in crisis. However, there are still some gaps that exists in the peer-reviewed literature for evidence-based best practices for certain sectors, including retail, transportation, waste management, etc., which focused on building sustainability and resilience during an emergency. With emergence of more pathogens, such as monkey pox, we need to be even more prepared in handling future crises and building resilience. There should be a clear roadmap for each specific sectors on how they will prepare for future crises, including conducting exposure monitoring, testing, contract tracings, practicing hygiene and sanitation, applying health and safety measures, and understanding community risks for new threats. In future, more publications in this area will help to prepare workforces for future crises in these sectors.

While some businesses took on new debts, laid off employees, or temporarily closed down, others took a more resilient approach by focusing on customers’ unique needs, channeling business to online sales and sourcing from new suppliers in case of supply chain disruption. Resilient and agile approaches are pro-competitive approaches that ensure a business can weather a crisis and become stronger [93]. In addition to individual business owners’ efforts, the government policy support system is also significant in helping businesses survive the crisis and preparing enterprises to improve businesses once the problem subsides [94].