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High-Sensitivity Terahertz Refractive Index Sensor Using Black Phosphorus-MXene-Graphene Hybrid Metasurfaces for Label-Free COVID-19 Detection

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Abstract

Fast and reliable virus detection like SARS-CoV-2, continues to pose significant challenges in the worldwide health administration. This study introduces a refractive index sensor designed for COVID-19 detection. The sensor leverages a SiO2-based substrate supporting two quadrant-shaped resonators and other metasurfaces designs. The material choice incorporates a synergistic combination of black phosphorus (BP), MXene (MX), and graphene. Simulation results exemplify 800 GHzRIU−1, 11.429 RIU−1, and 0.119 THz as optimal sensitivity, figure of merit and detection limit. Additionally, machine learning algorithms, essentially the weighted k-nearest neighbour regression, were employed to predict sensor performance, yielding a near-perfect correlation between predicted and actual transmittance values. The suggested sensor’s capability to quickly and accurately detect viral particles without requiring labelling makes it an essential tool for point-of-care diagnostics during pandemics.

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Data Availability

The data supporting the findings in this work are available from the corresponding author with reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

The authors extend their appreciation to the Deanship of Scientific Research at Northern Border University, Arar, KSA for funding this research work through the project number "NBU-FFR-2025-2461-05"

Funding

The authors extend their appreciation to the Deanship of Scientific Research at Northern Border University, Arar, KSA for funding this research work through the project number "NBU-FFR-2025–2461-05".

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Optics and Optical Engineering, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, China

    Jacob Wekalao

  2. Center for Scientific Research and Entrepreneurship, Northern Border University, 73213, Arar, Saudi Arabia

    Refka Ghodhbani

  3. Department of Information Technology, M.Kumarasamy College of Engineering, Tamil Nadu, Karur, 639113, India

    Dhivya R

  4. Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Karpagam Academy of Higher Education (Deemed to Be University), Coimbatore, 641021, Tamil Nadu, India

    Arun Kumar U

  5. Department of Electrical Engineering. College of Engineering, Jouf University, 72388, Sakaka, Saudi Arabia

    Ammar Armghan

  6. Department of Computer Engineering, Marwadi University, Rajkot, 360003, India

    Shobhit K. Patel

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Contributions

Methodology, J.W and R.G,.; software, J.W and S.K.P,; investigation, R.G. D.R and A.A; Results Analysis, A.K.U.; writing—original draft preparation, All authors,; writing—review and editing, All Authors,; All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

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Correspondence to Refka Ghodhbani.

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Wekalao, J., Ghodhbani, R., R, D. et al. High-Sensitivity Terahertz Refractive Index Sensor Using Black Phosphorus-MXene-Graphene Hybrid Metasurfaces for Label-Free COVID-19 Detection. Plasmonics (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11468-025-02884-x

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