Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic led to unprecedented disruptions to children’s education across the globe, including abrupt transitions from in-person learning to learning from home. The current study investigates patterns of change in the educational challenges that 453 children and 454 parents experienced at home during the early (2020–2021) and later stages (2021–2022) of the pandemic. The study took place in Toronto, Canada and our sample was diverse and reflected a low-income status. Thematic analyses revealed variation in the educational challenges experienced by children and parents in early and later COVID-19 pandemic. Latent class analyses identified two subgroups of children (79% Consistently Struggling, 21% with Delayed Challenges) and two subgroups of parents (81% Consistently Struggling, 19% with Delayed Challenges) based on their educational challenges across stages of the pandemic. Families with relatively higher socio-economic status (SES) in our sample showed higher levels of mental health symptoms and consistently struggled throughout the pandemic, while families with lower SES initially showed less mental health symptoms but experienced delayed increases in challenges as the pandemic progressed. These subgroups of change in educational challenges across stages of the pandemic were also significantly associated with parental mental health (i.e., depression, anxiety, and stress) and child temperament (anger and fear). These findings highlight the need to investigate the longitudinal impacts of COVID-19 on the wellbeing of young children and their families, and offers valuable knowledge for future preparedness in the face of any global crises. Recommendations for future research and intervention are discussed.
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Appendix
Appendix
Appendix A1
Latent Classes Identified for Children’s Educational Challenges.
Children Struggling Consistently | Children with Delayed Challenges | Chi-Square Test of Independence | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
χ2 (df) | p | |||
Early pandemic | ||||
Overall challenge | 292 (98.6%) | 0 (0%) | 364.93 (1) | < .001*** |
Lack of motivation | 81 (27.4%) | 0 (0%) | 31.14 (1) | < .001*** |
Difficulty focusing | 104 (35.1%) | 0 (0%) | 43.69 (1) | < .001*** |
Lack of socialization | 73 (24.7%) | 6 (6.3%) | 13.90 (1) | < .001*** |
Later pandemic | ||||
Overall challenge | 258 (95.9%) | 51 (91.1%) | 1.40 (1) | .24 |
Lack of motivation | 38 (14.1%) | 9 (16.1%) | 0.03 (1) | .87 |
Difficulty focusing | 132 (49.1%) | 21 (37.5%) | 2.05 (1) | .15 |
Lack of socialization | 58 (21.6%) | 13 (23.2%) | 0.01(1) | .92 |
Appendix A2
Demographic Characteristics of Families by Child Latent Classes.
Demographic Characteristics | Children Struggling Consistently | Children with Delayed Challenges | χ2 (df) | p | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
N | (%) | N | (%) | |||
Child is Female | 147 | 45.0 | 39 | 49.4 | 0.34 (1) | .56 |
Has Siblings | 164 | 48.0 | 42 | 47.7 | 0 (1) | .97 |
Child Living Condition | ||||||
Two-Parent Household | 207 | 57.5 | 41 | 45.6 | 4.47 (2) | .11 |
Single-Parent Household | 121 | 33.6 | 37 | 41.1 | ||
Other | 32 | 8.9 | 12 | 13.3 | ||
Married/Common Law | 206 | 58.0 | 40 | 45.5 | 4.51 (1) | .03* |
Mom’s Highest Level of Education | ||||||
No College | 26 | 8.2 | 11 | 15.3 | 5.04 (2) | .08 |
College | 122 | 38.4 | 31 | 43.1 | ||
BA or above | 170 | 53.5 | 30 | 41.7 | ||
Mom’s Ethnicity | ||||||
White | 95 | 29.4 | 15 | 18.1 | 5.66 (3) | .13 |
Black | 111 | 34.4 | 36 | 43.4 | ||
Asian | 80 | 24.8 | 19 | 22.9 | ||
Other | 37 | 11.5 | 13 | 15.7 | ||
Mom Owned Place | 144 | 40.1 | 21 | 23.3 | 8.72 (1) | .003** |
Mom has a Car | 278 | 77.4 | 52 | 57.8 | 14.28 (1) | < .001*** |
Mom has English as 1st Language | 138 | 55.2 | 40 | 65.6 | 2.16 (1) | .14 |
Other parent’s highest level of education | ||||||
No College | 70 | 21.7 | 24 | 32.9 | 4.88 (2) | .09 |
College | 111 | 34.5 | 18 | 24.7 | ||
BA or Above | 141 | 43.8 | 31 | 42.5 | ||
Appendix A3
Outcomes for Child Latent Classes at Early and Later Pandemic.
Children Struggling Consistently | Children with Delayed Challenges | Independent Sample T-Test | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
N | Mean (SD) | N | Mean (SD) | t | df | p | d | |
Early Pandemic | ||||||||
Child Temperament | ||||||||
Anger | 169 | 3.7 (1.3) | 46 | 3.4 (1.4) | 1.17 | 65.17 | .21 | NA |
Fear | 169 | 3.5 (1.4) | 46 | 3.6 (1.5) | -0.53 | 67.76 | .58 | NA |
Child Mental Health | ||||||||
Emotion | 315 | 1.9 (1.9) | 95 | 1.2 (1.3) | 3.82 | 229.49 | < .001*** | 0.39 |
Conduct Problem | 315 | 1.9 (1.7) | 95 | 1.5 (1.6) | 1.97 | 164.78 | .06 | NA |
Hyperactivity | 315 | 4.5 (2.6) | 95 | 3.5 (2.4) | 3.65 | 166.46 | < .001*** | 0.39 |
Parental Mental Health | ||||||||
Stress | 299 | 5.4 (3.3) | 90 | 3.8 (3.1) | 4.36 | 153.03 | < .001*** | 0.49 |
Anxiety | 299 | 1.9 (1.7) | 89 | 1.3 (1.6) | 2.57 | 150.70 | .01** | 0.36 |
Depression | 296 | 1.5 (1.5) | 90 | 1.1 (1.4) | 2.21 | 159.97 | .04* | 0.27 |
Later Pandemic | ||||||||
Child Temperament | ||||||||
Anger | 278 | 3.8 (1.3) | 61 | 3.3 (1.5) | 2.13 | 83.24 | .03* | 0.37 |
Fear | 278 | 3.6 (1.3) | 61 | 3.5 (1.2) | 0.76 | 91.24 | .46 | NA |
Child Mental Health | ||||||||
Emotion | 280 | 2.2 (2.0) | 62 | 1.8 (1.4) | 2.24 | 121.93 | .07 | NA |
Conduct Problem | 280 | 1.8 (1.6) | 62 | 1.5 (1.5) | 1.54 | 96.31 | .15 | NA |
Hyperactivity | 280 | 4.8 (2.6) | 62 | 3.5 (2.5) | 3.43 | 93.42 | < .001*** | 0.50 |
Parental Mental Health | ||||||||
Stress | 273 | 5.2 (3.3) | 59 | 4.7 (3.1) | 1.29 | 88.99 | .22 | NA |
Anxiety | 270 | 2.1 (1.8) | 58 | 1.4 (1.6) | 2.86 | 92.41 | .01** | 0.40 |
Depression | 271 | 1.7 (1.8) | 59 | 1.2 (1.6) | 2.38 | 94.28 | .03* | 0.28 |
Appendix B1
Latent Classes Identified for Parents’ Educational Challenges.
Parents Struggling Consistentlya | Parents with Delayed Challengesb | Chi-Square Test of Independence | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
χ2 (df) | p | |||
Early pandemic | ||||
Overall challenges | 308 (99.7%) | 0 (0%) | 383.41 (1) | < .001*** |
Difficulty balancing | 117 (37.9%) | 5 (5.8%) | 30.89 (1) | < .001*** |
Difficulty parenting/teaching role | 170 (55.0%) | 3 (3.5%) | 70.49 (1) | < .001*** |
Later pandemic | ||||
Overall challenges | 255 (97.3%) | 51 (86.4%) | 10.49 (1) | . 001*** |
Difficulty balancing | 139 (53.1%) | 18 (30.5%) | 8.91 (1) | . 003** |
difficulty parenting/teaching role | 110 (42.0%) | 29 (49.2%) | 0.74 (1) | .39 |
Appendix B2
Demographic Characteristics of Families for Parent Latent Classes.
Parents struggling consistently | Parents with delayed challenges | (%) | (%) | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
N | N | χ2 (df) | p | |||
Demographic Characteristics | ||||||
Child is Female | 146 | 39 | 1.23 (1) | .27 | 52.0% | 44.9% |
Has Siblings | 164 | 41 | 0.11 (1) | .74 | 50.0% | 48.0% |
Child Living Condition | ||||||
Two-Parent Household | 203 | 44 | 0.87 (2) | .65 | 52.4% | 56.4% |
Single-Parent Household | 125 | 30 | 35.7% | 34.7% | ||
Other | 32 | 10 | 11.9% | 8.9% | ||
Married/Common Law | 204 | 41 | 1.51 (1) | .22 | 50.0% | 57.5% |
Mom’s Highest Level of Education | ||||||
No College | 28 | 8 | 2.61 (2) | .27 | 11.8% | 8.8% |
College | 120 | 31 | 45.6% | 37.9% | ||
BA or above | 169 | 29 | 42.6% | 53.3% | ||
Mom’s Ethnicity | ||||||
White | 90 | 19 | 1.40 (3) | .70 | 25.3% | 27.7% |
Black | 112 | 30 | 40.0% | 34.5% | ||
Asian | 80 | 19 | 25.3% | 24.6% | ||
Other | 43 | 7 | 9.3% | 13.2% | ||
Mom Owned Place | 137 | 28 | 0.65 (1) | .42 | 33.3% | 38.1% |
Mom has a Car | 271 | 55 | 3.51 (1) | .06 | 65.5% | 75.5% |
Mom has English as 1st Language | 133 | 39 | 4.24 (1) | .04* | 68.4% | 53.4% |
Other parent’s Highest Level of Education | ||||||
No College | 74 | 18 | 0.18 (2) | .91 | 25.4% | 23.2% |
College | 103 | 23 | 32.4% | 32.3% | ||
BA or Above | 142 | 30 | 42.3% | 44.5% | ||
Appendix B3
Outcomes for parent latent classes at early and later pandemic.
Parents struggling consistently | Parents with delayed challenges | Independent sample t Test | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
N | Mean (SD) | N | Mean (SD) | t | df | p | d | |
Early Pandemic | ||||||||
Child Temperament | ||||||||
Anger | 168 | 3.7 (1.3) | 48 | 3.4 (1.2) | 1.33 | 82.78 | .21 | NA |
Fear | 168 | 3.6 (1.3) | 48 | 3.3 (1.5) | 1.13 | 69.57 | .23 | NA |
Child Mental Health | ||||||||
Emotion | 324 | 1.8 (1.9) | 87 | 1.4 (1.4) | 2.40 | 182.03 | .05* | 0.22 |
Conduct Problem | 324 | 1.9 (1.8) | 87 | 1.3 (1.3) | 3.51 | 175.74 | < .001*** | 0.35 |
Hyperactivity | 324 | 4.5 (2.6) | 87 | 3.4 (2.4) | 3.81 | 144.16 | < .001*** | 0.43 |
Parental Mental Health | ||||||||
Stress | 309 | 5.3 (3.3) | 81 | 3.9 (3.1) | 3.54 | 130.48 | < .001*** | 0.43 |
Anxiety | 310 | 1.9 (1.7) | 79 | 1.4 (1.5) | 2.48 | 132.92 | .02* | 0.30 |
Depression | 307 | 1.5 (1.5) | 80 | 1.1 (1.3) | 2.33 | 135.05 | .03* | 0.27 |
Later Pandemic | ||||||||
Child Temperament | ||||||||
Anger | 280 | 3.7 (1.4) | 61 | 3.5 (1.4) | 1.27 | 84.71 | .19 | NA |
Fear | 280 | 3.6 (1.3) | 61 | 3.5 (1.2) | 0.60 | 95.99 | .58 | NA |
Child Mental Health | ||||||||
Emotion | 282 | 2.3 (2.0) | 62 | 1.7 (1.3) | 2.57 | 127.76 | .05* | 0.32 |
Conduct Problem | 282 | 1.8 (1.6) | 62 | 1.3 (1.4) | 2.80 | 103.67 | .01** | 0.32 |
Hyperactivity | 282 | 4.7 (2.6) | 62 | 3.7 (2.6) | 2.64 | 89.92 | .01** | 0.38 |
Parental Mental Health | ||||||||
Stress | 275 | 5.3 (3.3) | 59 | 4.7 (3.1) | 1.96 | 87.90 | .06 | NA |
Anxiety | 271 | 2.1 (1.8) | 59 | 1.4 (1.6) | 2.99 | 93.18 | .01** | 0.40 |
Depression | 274 | 1.8 (1.8) | 59 | 1.0 (1.4) | 3.63 | 99.59 | < .001*** | 0.46 |
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Yu, E., Burns, S., Jegatheeswaran, C. et al. Both Me and My Daughter Would Cry Sometimes: Parents’ and Children’s Experiences with Home Education During the Early and Later COVID-19 Pandemic. Early Childhood Educ J (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-025-01887-x
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-025-01887-x