Proactive personality, social support and post-traumatic growth caused by COVID-19: mediating effect meaning in life in China

Abstract

As the COVID-19 epidemic ends in China, it is worth exploring the growth after experiencing the trauma of the epidemic. China has been managing the epidemic for a relatively long time compared to other countries. Many scholars have researched trauma and post-traumatic growth in groups such as doctors and patients. However, little attention has been paid to the post-traumatic growth of ordinary people who experienced the epidemic in the Chinese context and the related influencing factors. Based on the educational system as the research context, this study proposes the effects of proactive personality and social support on PTG in the post-epidemic era through the mediation of meaningfulness of life. To empirically examine the influences of PTG in the post-epidemic era, an online survey of 1210 university students was conducted for data analysis. The analysis results suggest that proactive personality and social support positively influence meaning in life. Proactive personality, social support and meaning in life positively influence post-traumatic growth. Proactive personality and social support social support and proactive personality indirectly influence post-traumatic growth through the mediation of the meaning in life. This research empirically investigated the role of personality, social support, meaning in life, and post-traumatic growth among university students.

Introduction

On March 12, 2020, the World Health Organization officially declared the coronavirus (COVID-19) outbreak a global pandemic. As one of the countries most affected in the initial stages of the outbreak, China was at the forefront of experiencing this unprecedented challenge. The pandemic severely disrupted social operations in China, leading to extensive losses in human resources, materials, economy, and environment, beyond the capacity of both China and global resources to respond effectively [1]. The relentless spread of COVID-19 worldwide directly resulted in many deaths and widespread disease transmission. Public fear of contagion, along with the risk of death faced by individuals and their loved ones, highlighted the uncertainty and uncontrollability of life, as well as the universal threat of mortality and illness, posing a profound challenge to survival [2] .Consequently, the COVID-19 pandemic has been defined as a traumatic event [3], exhibiting the typical characteristics of collective traumatic experiences, such as wars and natural disasters: unpredictability, extremity, persistence, the unknown nature of danger, and a direct threat to life [4]. In response to the immense public health crisis, China implemented strict control measures; nevertheless, the pandemic still imposed significant physical and psychological pressures on the population [5, 6]. The uncertainty surrounding the location, scope, and duration of the COVID-19 outbreak further heightened risks of imbalance and loss of control [7]. Additionally, studies indicate that, both in China and globally, individuals have been more susceptible to negative emotions such as fear, stress, anxiety, and depression during the pandemic, partly due to isolation measures and reduced social interactions [8]. Evidently, the global mental health crisis triggered by the COVID-19 pandemic has persisted throughout the pandemic period and is expected to continue impacting mental well-being in the post-pandemic era [9].

The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in China has been particularly profound, especially for university students. As one of the countries initially most affected by the pandemic, China implemented stringent control measures, including an isolation policy lasting up to three years. This unprecedented situation has significantly disrupted the academic and daily lives of university students. The abrupt shift to remote learning, social isolation, and uncertainties about the future have all posed potential traumatic experiences. However, humans inherently possess a tendency for psychological growth [10], which provides a foundation for studying post-traumatic growth (PTG). In this context, exploring how Chinese university students navigate the challenges posed by the pandemic and potentially achieve PTG becomes especially important.

Post-traumatic growth (PTG) is a complex psychological phenomenon and is not an inevitable outcome of traumatic experiences. PTG arises from deep cognitive and emotional struggles with traumatic events, a process that imbues these experiences with meaning and can elevate individuals to a higher level of psychological development than before [11]. The extent of PTG is influenced by multiple factors, with individual characteristics and environmental features playing critical roles [12].Individual traits are particularly impactful on PTG; those unable to cope effectively with trauma may experience persistent negative emotions, psychological distress, and adverse physiological responses [13]. In contrast, individuals exhibiting traits such as positive emotions and openness are more likely to achieve PTG [14]. Optimists, in particular, tend to focus their attention and resources effectively, allowing them to disengage from issues that are beyond their control or resolution [15]. In an uncertain and challenging context like COVID-19, individual proactivity becomes a crucial factor [16]. This proactive orientation not only reflects one’s approach to daily challenges but also demonstrates a tendency to positively influence one’s environment. This observation directs attention to an important personality trait—Proactive Personality (PPS). The concept of proactive personality emerges from understanding why some individuals are more inclined than others to actively shape their environments [17]. Individuals with a high level of proactive personality are more likely to identify opportunities, take action, persevere, and seek change [18]. These traits are particularly valuable in uncertain contexts, where they may play a key role in trauma coping and growth facilitation [19].

Building on this understanding, the present study draws on proactive personality theory and related behavioral theories to explore how proactive traits may assist individuals in coping with the uncertainties brought about by the pandemic, and how these traits might facilitate the occurrence of PTG [20,21,22].

Post-traumatic growth (PTG) is influenced not only by individual characteristics but also by environmental factors, among which social support (SS) is a key predictor. In times of crisis, an individual’s perceptions, responses, and the support they receive from others can all contribute to PTG. The perspectives offered by family, friends, and significant others, when validated and integrated by the individual, help to build a more comprehensive understanding [19, 20]. Thus, social support from others is crucial for the development of PTG [23].

Taking Chinese university students as an example, during the COVID-19 pandemic, students who experienced support from family and peers were not only able to mitigate the trauma caused by the pandemic but also demonstrated improved academic performance in the home-learning environment [24]. However, the pandemic also brought feelings of isolation and restriction for many, even affecting access to medical services [25]. In this unique context, further exploration of the role of social support in PTG becomes particularly important.

The global impact of the pandemic has highlighted the reality that certain aspects of life are entirely beyond individual control. Consequently, many have shifted their focus to areas they can manage, such as adapting to remote learning and working from home [26]. This adaptive behavior is closely tied to the construction of life meaning. Life meaning is defined as individuals’ interpretation of life, encompassing a sense of purpose and goals to pursue [27]. This sense of meaning is vital for maintaining positive psychological functioning, especially when facing obstacles and trauma [28].

For Chinese university students, the search for and pursuit of life meaning may involve deeper self-reflection and a deliberate effort to narrow the gap between current achievements and future goals. It is within this process that PTG can occur. Specifically, PTG manifests as a deeper and more comprehensive understanding of life, reordering of personal values, the formation of closer and more meaningful relationships with others, heightened self-awareness and a sense of personal strength, the discovery and embrace of new opportunities, and growth both intellectually and spiritually [14].

Previous studies on the PTG of COVID-19 have primarily focused on patients and healthcare workers as they are directly experienced trauma (respiratory distress, respiratory failure, tracheotomy) or witnessed and rescued trauma (e.g., medical care) [29]. In contrast, there is a lack of argumentation for the general population who suffer indirect trauma. They also experience real or unrealistic fear of human infection, social isolation, economic hardship, or community-wide risk [29, 30].

The impact of the pandemic on the field of education has been profound. The United Nations’ policy brief in August 2020 noted that over 1.6 billion students in 190 countries were affected worldwide [31]. For Chinese university students, the three-year pandemic isolation policy required them to adapt to remote learning [32]. This sudden shift not only disrupted their daily lives but may also have impacted their confidence and adaptability in learning, leading to increased levels of stress and anxiety [33, 34].

Although post-traumatic growth (PTG) is regarded as a positive strategy for coping with the adverse effects of COVID-19, its potential benefits among Chinese university students remain underexplored. Considering this, the present study focuses on three key variables: proactive personality (PPS), social support (SS), and meaning in life (ML). The aim is to investigate the direct and indirect effects of the pandemic experience on PTG among Chinese university students from the dual perspectives of individual traits and environmental factors.

The unique context faced by Chinese university students provides a rich basis for exploration. For instance, prolonged campus isolation policies may have intensified students’ feelings of loneliness and stress, yet they may also have spurred students to seek new ways of social interaction and avenues for self-growth. The challenges of remote learning have not only tested students’ adaptability but may have also encouraged the development of greater self-directed learning skills and digital literacy. Furthermore, within a collectivist cultural context, how Chinese university students maintain and reconstruct their social support networks despite physical isolation is an important question worthy of examination.

This study will explore the following core questions:

• (1) How does proactive personality (PPS) influence post-traumatic growth (PTG) among Chinese university students during the pandemic?

• (2) How does social support (SS) affect the post-traumatic growth process of Chinese university students in the unique context of the pandemic?

• (3) In the Chinese cultural context, how does meaning in life (ML) moderate the relationship between proactive personality, social support, and post-traumatic growth?

Investigating these questions can deepen the understanding of PTG theory within the Chinese cultural context and provide an empirical foundation for developing targeted mental health interventions. This is crucial for supporting Chinese university students in coping with the pandemic’s long-term effects and fostering resilience for similar challenges they may encounter in the future. Additionally, the findings of this study offer important insights for policymakers and administrators in Chinese higher education. Understanding the factors that promote student growth amid adversity can assist universities in designing more effective support systems, optimizing remote education strategies, and fostering students’ proactivity and adaptability.

In summary, this study focuses on the unique group of Chinese university students, examining proactive personality as a personal trait variable, social support as an environmental factor, and the role of life meaning in this process. By systematically analyzing how these factors interact and collectively influence the PTG process among university students, this research aims to uncover the underlying mechanisms of psychological adaptation and personal growth among Chinese students during the pandemic. This study not only provides a new perspective on psychological resilience in the context of COVID-19 but also offers empirical evidence for developing targeted mental health interventions and personal development plans, thereby supporting the psychological well-being and holistic development of university students in the post-pandemic era.

Below is the remaining text of this study. The next section provides a literature review related to the variables, followed by a detailed account of the study’s design and methodology, including information on the participants, instruments used, and data analysis techniques employed. Additionally, a descriptive analysis of the variables is included. The subsequent section presents the key empirical results and path analysis of structural equation modeling for post-traumatic growth (PTG) after an epidemic among Chinese university students. Finally, the study concludes with a comprehensive discussion and conclusion, which highlights the main findings, limitations, and potential avenues for future research.

Literature review

Proactive personality (PPS)

Proactive personality has been defined as a relatively stable, contextually unconstrained personality disposition over time [35, 36]. Meta-analyses have shown that over 50% of the variance in PPS is independent of the Big Five personality traits [37, 38], indicating its distinctiveness [22]. PPS is a persistent and relatively stable trait that characterizes individuals [39]. Those with PPS exhibit a proclivity towards behaving in a proactive manner which enables them to adjust to environmental changes. They are adept at influencing and changing their environment, proactively identifying and creating opportunities, taking personal responsibility when faced with difficulties, and dealing with different solutions to eliminate problems [40]. In China, the new crown epidemic has brought tremendous trauma to human beings and uncertainty in both time and space to the study and life of university students. Proactivity is especially important in uncertainty [41, 42]. Proactive individuals often exhibit motivation to evaluate potential future environmental conditions and adopt effective coping strategies to reduce uncertainties, especially during challenging situations [43, 44]. Research has shown a significant positive correlation between PPS and creative performance [39, 45, 46]. In other words, individuals with PPS are more likely to adapt to changes in their environment and generate positive outcomes.

Social support (SS)

Social support refers to social interactions in which resources are obtained from others [47, 48]. Social interactions can facilitate individuals in developing relationships that are regarded as affectionate, nurturing, and accessible [48,49,50]. SS assists individuals in improving their capacity to manage real-life problems and safeguards them from unfavorable results through the recognition of overall assistance from people in their social network [51].

A person’s social networks consist of his or her family, friends, neighbors, coworkers, and other significant persons. Social support plays a crucial role in promoting physical and mental well-being. In fact, research has shown that having a strong social support network can improve health outcomes, increase resilience to stress, and enhance overall quality of life. Emotional support, for instance, can help individuals cope with difficult life events, such as the loss of a loved one or a major illness. When faced with financial difficulties, instrumental support can provide the necessary resources to help individuals overcome their challenges. Informational support, on the other hand, can assist individuals in making important decisions, such as seeking medical treatment or financial planning. Lastly, evaluative support can help individuals gain a better understanding of their strengths and weaknesses, which can lead to personal growth and development. Overall, social support is an essential component of human relationships that can greatly impact an individual’s physical and emotional health [52].

According to Haber [53], social support (SS) can be categorized into two distinct types. The first type is objective support, which is further divided into material support and network support. While material support involves tangible resources that help individuals meet their goals and basic needs, network support encompasses both stable and unstable social relationships that provide emotional support and guidance. The second type is subjective support, also known as emotional support. This involves the perception of being respected and cherished within one’s social circle, which is deeply intertwined with one’s own subjective well-being [53].

Regardless of the classification, SS can be seen as different types based on the individual’s social relationships that help the individual recover from hardship and adversity. In cases of social isolation at school, classmates, friends, and peers may act as the most dependable members of a university student’s social network and a primary source of social support.

In addition, research has demonstrated that family support can assist kids in overcoming adversity, reducing psychological stress, and preventing mental health issues, so promoting good psychological development [54]. Of course, SS is also beneficial to students’ physical and mental health from other sources, such as their teachers [55,56,57]. In conclusion, SS can alleviate emotional trauma, promote psychological resilience, and prevent common psychological distress and psychiatric symptoms in university students exposed to epidemic stress. The more the perception of SS, the fewer students are influenced by pandemic, which inspires us to believe that our lives can thrive [58].

Meaning in life (ML)

Meaning in life is the meaning one assigns to the value of one’s life [17, 52], and a structure that promotes adaptation. It is a force that makes our experiences understandable, guides us toward a desired future, and inspires in us the belief that our lives are important and valuable [53, 54]. The earliest psychologist to systematically study the ML was Frankl (1963), who argued that the pursuit of ML is the original driving force for human existence and a human instinct [19]. On the other hand, Steger’s study of ML is more widely applied. He divided the ML into two parts: presence meaning and searching for meaning. Presence meaning describes the extent to which an individual believes he or she is alive, while search for meaning indicates that the individual is actively seeking ML [17]. Previous literatures argued that individuals who chronically lack a sense of purpose and ML acquire psychological disorders, whereas healthy individuals can explore the ML, gain additional growth experiences in the process of pursuing meaning, and increase their psychological health. From the aspect of positive psychology, the trauma of the pandemic aids university students in discovering and comprehending the meaning of their own lives and in realizing their positive life goals and missions.

Post-traumatic growth (PTG)

PTG (Post-Traumatic Growth) refers to the positive psychological growth that an individual experiences as a result of overcoming adversity [59, 60]. It highlights a person’s potential for transformation in difficult and traumatic circumstances [12, 61]. However, scholars studying PTG believe it is not the traumatic event itself, but rather the subsequent struggle, reflection, and integration that lead to PTG [59]. Experiencing hardships may potentially elevate one’s comprehension of the significance of interpersonal relationships. Through such experiences, individuals may also enhance their inner strength, reorganize personal priorities, cultivate a greater appreciation for the details of daily life, and aspire to achieve a more fulfilling spiritual existence [61]. Furthermore, research indicates that the existence of personality dynamics and trauma characteristics can have a positive impact on post-traumatic growth and spiritual development. Additionally, social support and emotional expression are regarded as effective means of alleviating mental illness and coping with stress responses [62]. However, uncertainty remains regarding PTG following a disaster or other very challenging life circumstances. As this concept is extremely complicated and can differ by environment, demographics, and personality traits [63].

Relationships between relevant variables

Proactive personality and meaning in life

The Big Five personality traits, the Big Two personality traits, and PPS have been added to ML-focused research in recent years. Personality has been demonstrated to be a predictor of ML [64]. Işık & Üzbe performed a study on adults aged 18 to 65 and found that the presence of ML was associated with all personality qualities, with openness and neuroticism explaining the ML [65]. Empirical evidence indicates a statistically significant positive relationship between positive personality traits, namely extraversion and agreeableness, and the presence of meaning [66, 67]. Additionally, forgiveness has been shown to promote ML [68]. More specifically, the sub-dimensions of good personality, including dutifulness and compassion, are significantly correlated with the presence of meaning [69, 70]. Considering this, it is imperative to establish a positive correlation between positive personality traits and the presence of meaning.PPS is the disposition to identify possibilities for change and act on them until the desired change is achieved. PPS is strongly associated with the inclination to seek meaning in life [35, 65].

During the epidemic, optimism helped older adults recuperate from the impacts of COVID-19 by supporting positive coping strategies and acceptance of adversities [71]. Similarly, in reaction to the unforeseen situation caused by the pandemic, many changes in student learning and lifestyle have occurred. It believed that persons with a high PPS should adjust positively to change through positive adaptation to accomplish the expected learning tasks.

Therefore, hypothesis H1: University students’ PPS positively influences life ML.

Proactive personality and post-traumatic growth

Personality plays a vital role in the development of post-traumatic growth (PTG), as it is a stable internal characteristic that offers unique psychological resources with cross-situational stability and wholeness [62, 72]. Research has shown that positive coping mechanisms, which are promoted by an individual’s personality, can contribute to higher levels of PTG following traumatic events such as the Wenchuan earthquake or the COVID-19 epidemic [73]. Based on the above researches, highly optimistic people are better able to readjust their life goals in response to adversity, which can lead to greater PTG outcomes [74, 75]. Furthermore, an optimistic personality has been identified as a significant predictor of PTG in Greek blockade zones [76]. Attempts have also been exerted to establish the mechanisms of PTG development in individuals with certain personalities or the factors that influence such development [77]. It is suggested that PPS, as a stable personality disposition [17], is associated with many positive outcomes such as career satisfaction and success, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and job performance. Positive psychological changes experienced after growing up post-traumatically and struggling through very challenging life situations [78]. The positive psychological changes experienced after trauma and struggling with very challenging life circumstances [59, 79], is also a positive outcome. During pandemic, proactive university students face the crisis, overcome anxiety and panic, and proactively embrace changes in their learning styles and lifestyles. Meanwhile, they adjust their physical and emotional state and psychological expectations.

Therefore, hypothesis H2: University students’ PPS positively influences PTG.

Social support and meaning in life

As an inherent component of human nature, particularly following trauma exposure [80]. ML may result from the encouragement and support of others [81]. When individuals receive care from others, such as family, friends, and classmates, they are more capable of dealing with significant life transitions [52]. SS helps individuals exposed to a pandemic reassess it positively and facilitates the psychological resources needed to rediscover the self. It has been shown that during a pandemic, students often seek support through family and social networks. Typically, emotional support from family and friends leads to more ML when confronted with a crisis [82]. The empirical results have demonstrated a notable positive correlation between SS and ML, wherein heightened SS levels correspond to enhanced ML discernibility [83]. Social contacts provide students the opportunity to share emotional suffering and experiences. Despite adversity, it may assist in triggering a sense of purpose, hope, and accomplishment [82,83,84]. Thus, higher levels of SS have been associated with a search for ML [85]. Students’ sense of meaning is often validated by feedback and guidance from trustworthy people such as teachers, parents, and friends. During pandemic, university students experience psychological fluctuations, dissatisfaction with the situation, and fear of life. Therefore, they need to share their experiences of searching for ML with significant others, such as teachers, classmates, parents, and friends, to gain understanding, emphatic guidance, and feedback. In this way, students complete their perception of the presence of meaning and the direction of their search for meaning.

Therefore, it is inferred that H3: University students’ SS positively influences ML.

Social support and post-traumatic growth

Research has shown that social support (SS) can have a negative correlation with psychological disorders in traumatic environments [86]. That is, high levels of SS can effectively prevent the onset of symptoms of physical and mental illnesses such as anxiety, depression, and insomnia to some extent. Because individuals with high SS are more likely obtain emotional and financial assistance from others which can lead to a surge of positive emotions and overall mental well-being. Moreover, empirical data reveals that SS, functioning as a supportive social environment and an environmental asset, may capacities individuals to effectively cope with challenges and engage in cognitive adaptive processes in response to traumatic experiences [87]. Consequently, SS has a protective effect on positive trauma adaption.

Studies of veterans and survivors of natural disasters have shown that low levels of SS following traumatic events are associated with PTSD symptoms [88]. Multiple studies have also identified healthcare workers during a pandemic where support and communication from family, friends, and colleagues helped them manage the adverse mental health consequences of the pandemic [89]. For example, the SS of nurses reported higher PTG during Chinese nurse assistance in Wuhan [90]. Thus, SS was positively associated with PTG [87, 91]. The subjects of this study are university students, who are more malleable and better qualified to change their outlook on life. When the epidemic leads to changes in ordinary life and study situations, especially when they receive sufficient support, they will also confront the dilemma and undergo positive changes.

Therefore, hypothesis H4 is proposed: SS of university students positively affects PTG.

Meaning in life and post-traumatic growth

A worthwhile pursuit would be to comprehend the association between ML and PTG, as documented evidence reveals their connection to beneficial health outcomes. ML may be a vital resource, a buffer against harmful mental health consequences, and a role in healing after experiencing a traumatic incident in life. The presence of meaning is a characteristic variable including the perception that one’s life has significance, and it is frequently the focus of ML research [92]. The presence of meaning is related to psychological well-being and PTG [93]. Presence is the opposite of existential, and the search for meaning indicates motivation to discover meaning, which the two-factor model shows is supported by factor analysis [27]. The meaning search usually entails some psychological distress [94]. However, it also helps individuals to some extent to reflect from their traumatic experiences. Some studies have indicated that meaning seeking is positively associated with PTG [95]. Incredibly, ML may even contribute to coping and growth resulting from the struggles with traumatic experiences [94, 96]. Traumatic experiences change one’s way of thinking, perception of the world, and understanding of trauma. Valuable aspects are found in adversity and then are plausibly integrated to form a coherent life story. Furthermore, researchers found that ML and PTG have a positive relationship, and that meaning making is positively correlated with PTG [97].

An abundance of scholarly literature exists exploring the correlation between ML and PTG in various patient populations, for instance, individuals diagnosed with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease [98], stroke survivors [99], and individuals with other chronic illnesses [85]. The results demonstrate that ML is positively related to PTG. The relationship between individual life meaning and PTG in natural disasters, such as floods or droughts, has also been studied [61, 93]. Coronavirus pandemics, like diseases and natural disasters, can also be traumatic [100].

After COVID-19, coronavirus patients believed that the disease experience altered their outlook on life in a positive direction. It led to development and growth for the majority of participants. Numerous participants indicated that they reassessed their perceptions of the meaning and priorities of their lives. They realized that life is fragile and precious and reassessed values and goals [100]. Different people’s experiences bring different insights. University students deal with the reality of infection, social isolation, and the resulting unrealistic fears during a new crown pandemic. However, trauma may reshape individuals’ assumptions regarding their self-image and their outlook on the world. Individuals tend to seek for meaning post-trauma such that through the emergence of new meanings, they could reconstruct their perceptions of themselves and the world, ultimately leading to an exposition of meaningfulness [101]. This theory of meaning-construction is congruent with the psychological theory of growth [102]. Therefore, we infer that:

H5: The ML in university student groups positively influences PTG.

Based on the above studies, we construct the basic model for this study in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

Basic research framework. Note 1: FAM = family support; FRI = friend support; SO = significant others; LMP = Presence of Meaning; LMS = Search for Meaning; NP = New possibilities; PS = Personal strength; RO = relationship with others; SC = spiritual change; AL = Appreciation of life

Research Design and Framework

This study employed a questionnaire survey method. The following provides a detailed description of the sample selection, sample size determination, data collection, research instruments, and data analysis [103].

Sample size and data collection

The participants of this study were university undergraduates. The questionnaire was distributed online through the Questionnaire Star platform. The average time to complete the survey was about 10 min. This study was determined using the convenience sampling method. This method allowed for voluntary participation and easy access to data for the study participants.

These data were collected between 3rd January 2023–24th January 2023. The respondents were 1255 undergraduate students from 4 universities in Shandong, Henan, and Yunnan, China. After excluding invalid responses, duplicate IP addresses, and surveys with excessively short response times, a total of 1,210 valid questionnaires were obtained. Ideally, the sample size should be 10 times greater than the number of items in the PLS sample [104]. The present research project was 47 items with a sample size of 1210, which fully complies with the requirement.

To ensure the statistical power of latent and observed variables, we utilized the online statistical tool provided by Soper (2024). Based on a model statistical power of 0.8, we considered factors such as the number of latent variables, number of observed variables, anticipated effect size (d = 0.3), and significance level (P < 0.001). The recommended sample size for this study was set at 241. Thus, the sample size in this study meets the statistical requirements for structural equation modeling, ensuring the robustness and reliability of the results.

There were 492 males (40.7%) and 718 females (59.3%). Subjects’ majors included arts (622, 51.4%), science (288, 23.8%), engineering (132, 10.9%), and other (168, 13.9%).

Instruments

The questionnaire of this study was separated into two parts. The first part is the questionnaire section, which consists of PPS Variables, Meaning in Life Scale, Multidimensional Social Support Scale, and Post Traumatic Growth Inventory (PTGI-SF). The second part is the demographic survey section, which mainly collects information on individual characteristics variables, including gender, age, income, and parents’ education. The questionnaire takes a self-report approach to data collection. A Likert response format was used in this study. The items are rated on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 to 7.

Proactive personality

PPS was assessed by the PPS-6 [105, 106]. The instrument consists of a 7-point Likert-type scale, ranging from 1 (“strongly disagree”) to 7 (“strongly agree”). Reliability estimates were reported by Claes et al. (2005), with Cronbach’s alpha values of 0.78 (in Finland), 0.79 (in Belgium), and 0.86 (in Spain). Due to the impact of the epidemic, this study employed a modified 5-item version of the PPS-6. The internal consistency of the instrument in this study was high, with a Cronbach’s alpha value of 0.94.

Social support

The Social Support Scale used in this study is a 12-item scale with three dimensions measuring perceived support from family, friends, and significant others [107, 108]. Because students were sequestered from school during the epidemic, significant others in this study were primarily teachers and classmates. High mean MSPSS scores indicated higher levels of perceived social network assistance by participants. The alpha coefficient for internal consistency of the MSPSS was 0.93, and the three dimensions of family, friends and significant others were 0.91, 0.89, and 0.91, respectively [109]. This study was adjusted for the context of the epidemic, with a total of 10 items. The alpha for the three dimensions in this study was 0.92, 0.91, and 0.95, respectively, and social support was 0.95.

Meaning in life questionnaire

ML was assessed by meaning in Life Questionnaire (MLQ). The scale is a two-factor structure consisting of presence (MLQ-P; current meaning) and search (MLQ-S; search for meaning) [27]. “The Presence subscale measures a person’s perception of the degree to which his or her life has meaning, such as “I understand the meaning of my life.” The “Search” subscale measures a person’s motivation to find ML, such as “I am searching for meaning in my life.” The estimated alpha coefficients for internal consistency were 0.81 and 0.84, respectively [110]. The scale has ten questions. This study was adjusted for the context of the epidemic, with a total of 8 items. Importantly, these modifications were reviewed and validated by experts to ensure content validity, confirming that the adapted version retains the scale’s original effectiveness. The alpha for the two dimensions of meaningful presence and search was 0.88 and 0.89, respectively, and the alpha for ML was 0.93.

Post-traumatic growth

PTG aims to quantify an individual’s development following a very stressful or traumatic incident [14, 96]. The PTG opted for this study because it has been utilized in prior research to evaluate the association between PTG and chronic diseases such as cancer [94, 111] and stroke [112]. The PTG consists of 21 items that measure growth through 5 factors: relationships with others (7 items), new possibilities (4 items), personal strength (3 items), spiritual change (2 items), and appreciation for life (5 items). We made some adjustments in the context of the epidemic for 13 items. In previous studies, the PTG scores proved to be reliable. The scale’s personal strength (α = 0.67), relationship with others (α = 0.85), new possibilities (α = 0.84), spiritual change (α = 0.85), and appreciation of life (α = 0.67) were able to confirm the validity of the questionnaire [14]. In the present study, the dimensions 0.92, 0.81, 0.93, 0.86, 0, 89, and the overall alpha coefficient of the PTG was 0.95, indicating a high internal consistency.

Data analysis

During the data collection process, we transferred data from the Questionnaire Star survey platform and analyzed the data using SPSS 23. We performed descriptive statistics between demographics and examined the relationship between the variables PPS, social support, the ML, and PTG.

To verify the research’s hypotheses, structural equation models were employed. In this context, we used PLS-Smart 4.0 for path analysis. Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) was selected as the core data analysis tool. This method combines principal component analysis with iterative estimation techniques of multiple regression, providing a robust approach for causal modeling. Compared to the structural equation models of LISREL and AMOS, the PLS method requires less measurement scale, sample size, and residual distribution [113, 114].

This study utilized PLS-SEM analysis in two distinct stages. Firstly, a comprehensive reliability and validity analysis was conducted. Secondly, the path coefficients and explanatory power of the structural model were estimated and verified. PLS-SEM is primarily focused on constructing theoretical models and exploring causal links between structural variables [115,116,117]. Furthermore, this methodology is capable of handling both model structure and measurement items. In addition, PLS has less rigorous constraints for the normality and randomness of variables, making it helpful in analyzing correlations between variables in data distributions that are not normal. In addition, it can analyze complex predictive models [115]. This investigation investigated the causal links between PPS, SS, ML, and PTG. Except for PPS, all variables included second-order variables. PLS is, therefore, more suitable than other SEM analysis methods for investigating the causal links among the variables, reducing measurement error, and avoiding covariance in this investigation.

Results

Outer model and scale validation

Internal consistency, convergent validity, and discriminant validity of the constructs are evaluated as part of the external model’s correlation test. To determine the dependability of the test items, the matching questions are loaded. The individual reliability threshold for factor loadings is 0.6 [116].

Table 1 Reliability and AVE of the outer model

Composite reliability (CR) indicates the consistency of the internal variables, the higher the CR value of the potential variables, the more the potential variables can be measured, and their measured variables are highly correlated. Therefore, the CR value needs to be higher than the threshold value of 0.7. The CRs of the potential variables in this study are all greater than 0.9, indicating good consistency in the constructs of this study. Considering convergent validity, a construct has good convergent validity if the AVE of all the constructs is > 0.5 and the reliability is > 0.7 [116, 118]. Table 1 shows that all constructs met the recommendations made by Fornell & Larcker (1981), indicating good convergent validity. In addition, the square root of the AVE was tested to see if it was more significant than the correlation coefficient of the structures to confirm the discriminant validity.

Discriminant validity

The discriminant validity of an item set is how well it can distinguish one variable from another. Fornell-Larcker criteria and factor loadings serve as main methods to measure discriminant validity. According to the Fornell-Larcker criterion, the diagonal value of each factor in Table 2 should be greater than the correlation coefficient on the corresponding row for each factor’s average variance extracted AVE square root value, respectively. The questionnaire data would have good discriminant validity if this criterion is met. The data in this study met the Fornell-Larcker criteria, demonstrating discriminant validity among the constructs.

Table 2 Results of discriminant validity by Fornell-Larcker criteria

Inner model and hypotheses testing

This study evaluated the path of coefficients and R square using PLS analysis. The path coefficients indicate the intensity and direction of the association between variables, demonstrating causality, while the R-squared value interprets the proportion of the dependent variable, indicating the predictive capacity of the model. Therefore, the bootstrapping method has been used to determine the profitability of each path coefficient in this study. Data were resampled to determine the values. The measured value is more precise than the frequently employed limit approximation [119]. Consequently, this method was utilized to determine the significance of the association between variables. H1-H5 were all supported, as shown in Table 3; Fig. 2.

Table 3 Summary of inner model results

Fig. 2

Standardized path coefficients and significance of inner model. Note 1: FAM = family support; FRI = friend support; SO = significant others; LMP = Presence of Meaning; LMS = Search for Meaning; NP = New possibilities; PS = Personal strength; RO = relationship with others; SC = spiritual change; AL = Appreciation of life. Note 2: ***p < 0.001. Abbreviations: CV1, sex; CV2, grade; CV3, family income; CV4, father’s education level; CV5, mother’s education level

According to the causality diagram of the study model (As is seen in Fig. 2), PPS positively promotes ML and PTG with estimates of 0.479 and 0.326; social support positively influences ML and post-traumatic support with estimates of 0.387 and 0.382, respectively; and meaning in life positively influences PTG with an estimate of 0.313. All hypotheses P < 0.001, differences were statistically significant. Therefore, all hypotheses are supported.

The causality diagram of the study model shows that the explanation strength of PPS and SS on ML is 64.4%; the strength of PPS, SS, and ML on PTG is 88.3%. It shows that the model explains the degree of potential variables favorably.

Testing of mediation effects

According to Zhao et al. (2010), the mediation analysis is known from the Table 4, and the PPS→ML→PTG, and SS→ML→PTG mediated relationships are supported. Both paths are complementary mediators. Additionally, this study conducted statistical analysis on the impact of control variables, such as age, gender, income, and parental education level, on post-traumatic growth. The findings indicate that the influence of these control variables on the dependent variable lacks statistical significance.

Table 4 Mediation effects testing

Discussion

Discussion of findings

The present study examined the factors associated with the college student population to promote PTG in the post-epidemic era. The direct effects model suggests a positive relationship between PPS and PTG. Previous study indicates that proactive people are more inclined to have positive experiences and outcomes. Researchers have discovered, for instance, that PPS is connected with greater life satisfaction [120, 121] and more proactive behaviors [39, 122]. During an epidemic, students who exhibit proactive characteristics are better able to face the dilemma of the epidemic, accept the reality of the moment, adjust their perceptions, and accept the reality of the moment, such as learning new skills and achieving online learning. In addition, students are more able to value human relationships and feel more enjoyable in offline classes, which are expressions of psychological growth and positive outcome consistent with prior research.

Indirect effects models suggest that ML partially mediates PPS and PTG in university students. It also demonstrates that PPS is strongly associated with the tendency of individuals to search for meaning in their life. Furthermore, the presence of meaning mediates personality and mental health. Based on the positive correlation, this study concludes that college students with PPS are more willing to adopt a positive attitude toward the objective world, are more likely to integrate their original perceptions, are more able to accept the reality of their dilemmas, and gain post-traumatic psychological growth. Consequently, the conclusion of this investigation is aligned with those of the original research.

Similarly, there exists a positive and direct association between perceived social support and posttraumatic growth (PTG) in university students, with the mediating role of the ML in the indirect effect model. Specifically, the direct effect model yielded results that are aligned with previous research, affirming a positive correlation between social support in university students and PTG [122].

These findings are congruent with social cognitive theory [123]. Provision of top-quality social support could enable individuals experiencing distress to effectively cope with their situation and reconstruct their cognitive abilities. Sufficient social support can assist young people tackling trauma after an epidemic distress experience in high school students, which can help reinforce positive adjustment and help facilitate PTG.

Furthermore, a partial mediating role could be played by ML between SS and PTG based on indirect effects models. Many studies suggest that SS may play a positive role in the promotion of MIL. These studies suggest that intimate relationships, such as emotional attachment with family members and friends, generate a greater sense of belonging, which are both source and consequence of ML [84, 124]. As a result of such positive associations, it is possible to conclude that the feeling and reality of being cared for, of being able to receive help from others, and of being part of a supportive social network, are important [125]. It would encourage individuals to understand the traumatic event, which in turn may require a reassessment of the event in a positively rewarding and fully meaningful way. Consequently, PTG may develop from these speculations. When in distress, university students who receive SS from family, friends, and others will be more able to face the distress and experience positive psychological adjustment. This support can help them find positive meaning from their traumatic experiences. Thus, students with higher levels of perceived social support are more inclined to reflect on ML than those with lower levels, which may encourage PTG. The findings also show that ML plays a crucial role in SS and PTG.

The results indicate that the impact of independent variables on post-traumatic growth (PTG) is more significant, while control variables such as age, gender, income, and parental education level do not significantly affect this outcome. In the context of the pandemic, these control variables may not be critical factors influencing PTG. This suggests that the study design effectively controls for potential confounding factors, allowing the influence of the independent variables on the dependent variable to emerge more clearly.

The focus of this study is to explore how SS, PPS, ML, and PTG are interconnected in the context of the ongoing pandemic, which has significantly impacted global social engagement and has yet to be thoroughly examined. This research aims to delve into a new area of study that has not previously been explored, given the unprecedented nature of this global epidemic. While research on PTG has largely focused on other forms of traumatic experiences, such as disease [94, 111], war [72], and natural disasters [61, 95], there is promising potential for this research to extend to the unique type of widespread trauma brought on by COVID-19. The results of this study emphasize the crucial impact of both internal factors, including personality traits and a sense of meaningfulness in life, and external factors, such as social support, in the explanation of PTG. Additionally, the study uncovers indirect paths that potentially lead to PTG during the COVID-19 pandemic. To expand on the current literature regarding PTG in this pandemic, this research highlights the role of ML in mediating between PPS and PTG, as well as SS and PTG.

The results emphasize the critical effects of endogenous factors (e.g., personality characteristics and meaning in life) and the external environment (e.g., social support) in interpreting PTG during the COVID-19 pandemic and reveal indirect pathways which may contribute to PTG. The results of this study not only add to the literature on PTG in the COVID-19 pandemic, but also contribute by exploring the mediating role between PPS and PTG and the mediating role of ML between perceived social support and PTG.

Practical application

This paper proposes a comprehensive framework to address the challenges faced by students in times of crisis by strengthening social support systems, fostering positive meaning-making, and implementing practical recommendations. The goal is to enhance student resilience and promote holistic development amid prevailing uncertainties.

A strong social support network is crucial in guiding students through difficult times, both at the familial and school levels. Effective communication and connection within families can empower students to face challenges collectively. Family support in life and academics fosters the development of positive values in students. Engaging in joint activities deepens parent-child relationships, facilitating mutual growth. Universities play a vital role in maintaining transparent and consistent communication to reduce student anxiety during uncertain times. Schools should leverage social media platforms and offer professional counseling and crisis intervention services, especially during unconventional measures. Adaptive guidance is essential for helping students transition smoothly to online learning. Additionally, fostering online social platforms for interaction strengthens the supportive social network for students.

The process of building resilience involves guiding students to find positive meaning in adversity and encouraging cognitive restructuring. Mental health education can help students interpret traumatic events positively, viewing them as growth opportunities and resilience-building experiences. Encouraging students to set clear, future-oriented goals provides motivation and a sense of direction. Teachers play a key role in helping students deepen their self-understanding through individual tutoring or group discussions, enhancing self-awareness. Additionally, guiding students to balance their understanding of external challenges and internal aspirations promotes problem-solving skills and facilitates cognitive integration.

Implementing continuous, practical support mechanisms provides a solid foundation for students’ psychological well-being. Regular online parent-teacher meetings allow for shared insights on student academic performance and family circumstances, fostering a supportive learning environment. Designating a specific month for mental health education, with activities such as lectures and workshops, raises awareness and reinforces mental health as a priority for students. Mental health apps, online assessment systems, and other digital tools provide accessible self-assessment channels, ensuring continuous psychological support.

By implementing these three core components comprehensively, this framework aims to enhance students’ resilience and mental health, strengthen family-school collaboration, and support students’ holistic development.

Limitation and further research

The first limitation is the adoption of a cross-sectional study. Cross-sectional studies have a degree of limitation on the extent to which we can make causal inferences between the variables. Discussion and conclusions regarding the direction of the relationships between variables are based solely on theoretical concepts and are not supported by empirical assessments. The second constraint of this study can be attributed to the participant demographic, which exclusively encompasses university students. However, it is undeniable that relatively homogeneous groups and convenience sampling methods make the study population lack randomness or representativeness. Limited sample representativeness may produce a selection effect sample. The subjects in this study were neither those who directly experienced symptoms and traumatic treatment nor witnessed patient suffering, but those who experienced real or unrealistic fears of infection, fear of social isolation, and fear of risk throughout school [29]. Also, the study participants were Chinese students, so generalizing results to similar studies may be limited due to their cultural influences.

The study also provides directions for further investigation. First, in the future scholars could design a longitudinal study to sort out potential causal relationships between variables. Second, besides employing self-reported assessments, further research should consider mental health-related data or neuroscientific tools to elucidate the mechanisms of PTG. Third, the inclusion of diverse and representative samples in future studies on PTG, such as individuals from various occupational and income strata, would contribute to an enriched and all-encompassing understanding of the PTG status among diverse populations, thereby validating the stability and consistency of the findings. Additionally, building upon convenience sampling, integrating qualitative research methods will enhance the depth and breadth of the study by providing a deeper understanding of the characteristics and contexts of the samples.

Furthermore, exploring the cultural differences in PTG is essential. This exploration is worth undertaking because individuals’ cognitive strategies and parenting styles are inevitably shaped by their cultures in the course of their development [126]. The outcomes of this study provide a conceivable avenue for disentangling the intricate mechanisms that underlie PTG in collectivist cultures like those evident during the COVID-19 pandemic. Moreover, it is crucial to research PTG in a broad range of diverse cultural settings, including individualistic cultures.

Conclusions

This study constructs a mechanism for the interaction of internal and external factors in university students’ tackle the trauma caused by the COVID-19. It indicates that PPS is positively related to ML and PTG. SS was positively correlated with ML and PTG. The results consistently suggest that the personality traits and SS of university students are critical in coping with the trauma of uncertainty during the pandemic. The positive nature of PPS and SS from family, friends, school teachers, and peers outside of the coronavirus disease crisis enabled university students in isolation to actively cope with trauma, discover and even create meaning in their lives, and complete the process of PTG. The longitudinal data of this study have increased the use of PTG in the organizational literature. It explains from a modeling perspective how personality traits and social relationships help people in distress to disengage.